Multiple anthropogenic stressors in the Galápagos Islands' complex social–ecological system: Interactions of marine pollution, fishing pressure, and climate change with management recommendations.

This article critically examines the combined impacts of anthropogenic stressors—specifically marine pollution, climate change, and illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing—on the biodiversity and evolutionary processes of the Galápagos Islands, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It highlights how pollutants such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), metals, oil spills, and plastics, alongside fishing pressures and climate variability (notably El Niño Southern Oscillation events), are altering species’ health, population dynamics, and ecosystem functions, with examples including the contamination and feminization of Galápagos sea lions and the vulnerability of marine iguanas. The review underscores the need for integrated, multidisciplinary management approaches that combine bottom-up community engagement with proactive policies to mitigate these intertwined threats, advocating for expanded marine protected areas, sustainable fisheries governance, and innovative conservation paradigms that embrace ecological change rather than solely aiming for preservation.