Time on the crossing: emigrant voyages across the Atlantic, 1853–1913.

This article presents a new annual index of average emigrant voyage durations from Liverpool to New York between 1853 and 1913, documenting an 80 percent reduction in crossing time from about 40 days to 8 days, primarily due to the transition from sail to steam-powered ships in the mid-19th century. It also highlights a significant decrease in the variability of voyage lengths, reflecting increased reliability and regular scheduling by steamship lines. Although nominal transatlantic fares did not decline overall, when combined with the opportunity cost of foregone earnings during travel—valued at average UK wages—the total cost of migration fell substantially, by about one third in terms of weeks of labor. The study suggests that these reductions in time and total cost likely contributed to the growth and sustainability of European emigration to North America during this period.