Ramadan during pregnancy and offspring health outcomes over the life course: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

This article systematically reviews and meta-analyzes the effects of Ramadan intermittent fasting during pregnancy on offspring health across the life course. Drawing on 31 studies with millions of subjects, it finds no consistent impact on neonatal outcomes such as birth weight, gestational length, or prematurity, but identifies a reduced probability of male births. In childhood, prenatal Ramadan exposure is associated with slightly lower height, increased mortality in high-mortality settings, and poorer cognitive performance. Adulthood outcomes show more pronounced adverse effects, including higher risks of hearing disabilities, chronic diseases, impaired general health, and reduced human capital indicators like employment and home ownership. The first trimester of pregnancy emerges as a particularly sensitive period, and the findings align with fetal programming theory, suggesting that subtle prenatal nutritional restrictions can have latent long-term health consequences.