Civil–Military Relations and Education of Military Elites in Türkiye: Lessons Learned From the Past.

This article examines the impact of civil–military relations (CMR) on professional military education (PME) in Türkiye prior to the 2016 coup attempt, arguing that problematic CMR hindered the development of an effective PME system. It identifies the pre-2016 Turkish PME as an isolation model dominated exclusively by military elites—specifically the kurmay officer corps—who controlled curricula, teaching methods, and admissions with minimal civilian involvement, resulting in an elitist, rote-learning system that lacked balance between academic education and military training. The article contrasts this with the post-2016 integration model under the National Defence University, where civilian and military experts jointly govern PME, aiming to address past shortcomings. It concludes that civilian participation is essential for effective PME regardless of the nature of CMR, and that Türkiye’s experience offers lessons for countries seeking to reform military education through civil–military cooperation.