The Supervisors Are Carrying the Bag: The Nurses' Emergency Council, Settlement Houses, and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic in New York City.

This article examines New York City's public health response to the 1918 influenza pandemic, focusing on the collaboration between the Nurses' Emergency Council (NEC) and the Department of Health under Commissioner Royal Copeland. The NEC, chaired by Jewish American social reformer and nursing pioneer Lillian Wald, coordinated visiting nurses to provide home care aimed at containing the virus and supporting immigrant communities, complementing hospital efforts amid staff shortages. Contrary to some historical critiques portraying Copeland's leadership as ineffective, recent scholarship highlights New York's early and sustained nonpharmaceutical interventions, including quarantine, staggered business hours, and community nursing, which contributed to a relatively lower death rate compared to other East Coast cities. The article also details the role of settlements and African American organizations in nursing care and after-care services, emphasizing the importance of community-based health strategies during pandemics.