Children's health impact in a smelter site area in China: modeling approaches for the identification and ranking of the most relevant lead exposure routes.

This article focuses on assessing lead (Pb) exposure and its health impact on children aged 0–7 years living near a historical Pb–Zn smelter site in Yunnan province, southwestern China, using two integrated exposure modeling tools: the Integrated Exposure Uptake Bio-Kinetic (IEUBK) model and MERLIN-Expo. Both models, applied with site-specific environmental and food Pb concentration data, predicted elevated children's blood lead levels (BLLs) exceeding the 10 µg/dl threshold commonly used in China to indicate lead poisoning, with soil and dust ingestion identified as the dominant exposure pathways contributing over 70% of total Pb uptake. Model predictions were generally consistent with available biomonitoring data from the region, supporting the use of these tools as complementary approaches to invasive biomonitoring for identifying priority exposure routes and informing risk management. The study highlights the ongoing health risks posed by persistent environmental Pb contamination in rural smelter areas and recommends soil remediation, dust control, dietary precautions, and regular blood testing to mitigate children's exposure.