Hidden Brain Anatomy in Peter Paul Rubens's Copy of "The Battle of Anghiari" by Leonardo da Vinci: "The Battle of Anghiari" and Brain Anatomy.

This article focuses on a 1603 drawing by Peter Paul Rubens, a copy of Leonardo da Vinci's lost fresco "The Battle of Anghiari" (1503–1506), revealing that the battle scene covertly depicts a three-dimensional lateral view of the human brain. The original fresco, which Leonardo began in 1505 and left unfinished, is believed by some scholars to be hidden beneath Giorgio Vasari's mural in Florence's Palazzo Vecchio. Detailed analysis of Rubens's drawing identifies anatomical brain structures, including lobes, arteries, and nerves, suggesting Leonardo embedded neuroanatomical knowledge within the composition. The article also contextualizes Leonardo's extensive anatomical studies of the brain and sensory pathways, highlighting his pioneering role in scientific illustration and his possible intention to symbolize human consciousness amid the depicted battle.