Dancing with the devil: Intervention programs under criminal governance in Northern Central America.

This article examines how violence intervention programs are implemented in gang-controlled territories in Northern Central America, specifically Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador. Based on focus groups with community members and program workers, it develops a typology of four strategies for engaging with gangs: avoiding, confronting, tolerating, and negotiating. The study finds that due to the gangs' de facto governance and territorial control—particularly by Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) and the 18th Street gang—non-governmental organization (NGO) workers cannot avoid contact with gangs and instead rely primarily on a combined "acknowledge and carry on" approach involving tacit negotiation and tolerance to safely implement programs. The article highlights the complex dynamics NGOs face in these hyperviolent contexts, where respecting gang-imposed rules is essential for program continuity, and notes significant distrust of state institutions, especially in Honduras.