More than a few words? Examining translanguaging interactions and dialogic empathy in Frisian primary schools.

The article investigates the development and impact of translanguaging strategies and dialogic classroom interaction in multilingual Frisian primary schools within the 3M Project (2017–2021). It analyzes how three teachers employed translanguaging—using pupils’ home languages symbolically, comparatively, or as scaffolding—in classrooms with diverse linguistic backgrounds, noting that symbolic translanguaging predominated, especially when teachers lacked proficiency in pupils’ home languages. Quantitative analyses revealed that classroom interaction largely followed monologic patterns (initiation-response-evaluation sequences), with teachers dominating turn-taking and limited dialogic empathy, although pupils occasionally initiated language comparisons and expressed linguistic identity. The study concludes that while symbolic translanguaging can enhance pupil agency and inclusion, fully leveraging translanguaging’s educational benefits requires fostering more dialogic, interactive classroom environments that challenge language hierarchies and support equitable learning outcomes.