Policing Gender, Race, and Place: A Multi-Level Assessment of Stop and Frisks.

This study examines how the intersections of gender, race, and place influence outcomes of investigatory stops, specifically stop, question, and frisk (SQF) encounters by the New York Police Department (NYPD) from 2012 to 2017. Using an intersectional and ecological framework, the research finds that Black individuals, particularly Black men, are more likely to experience further police action (frisk, search, summons, or arrest) than White individuals, while women are generally less likely than men to face such actions. However, Black women face higher odds of further action compared to White women, highlighting the importance of considering gender and race jointly. Additionally, neighborhood characteristics—such as concentrated disadvantage and racial composition—affect police behavior, with evidence suggesting that officers apply place-based assumptions that influence suspicion and discretion, a phenomenon described as ecological attribution bias. The study underscores the need for policing research and policy to incorporate intersectional and place-based analyses to better understand and address disparities in proactive policing tactics.