3D laminar flow–assisted crystallization of perovskites for square meter–sized solar modules.

Transforming laboratory-scale perovskite solar cells to large-scale production will require uniform crystallization of the perovskite film. We designed a method to aid the crystallization process by generating well-defined three-dimensional (3D) laminar airflow over square meter–sized perovskite films using a customized 3D-printed structure. The resultant perovskite solar modules with areas of 0.7906 square meters had a certified power conversion efficiency of 15.0% and achieved compliance with three sets of solar cell standards. Our metrics for a 1-year operational study from a 0.5–megawatt peak power perovskite solar farm indicate a 29% higher energy yield per kilowatt of installed capacity compared with that of silicon modules at the same facility that primarily resulted from their temperature-dependent operational characteristics. Editor's summary: Laminar airflows enabled the crystallization of high-performance perovskite films over meter-square areas. Yan et al. used computational fluid dynamics and additive manufacturing to design and fabricate a dryer head that allowed for uniform drying over large substrates. Stable perovskite solar modules with an area of 0.8 square meters had certified power-conversion efficiencies of 15.0%. A 1-year operational study from a half-megawatt peak power perovskite solar farm in Quzhou, China, had favorable energy output per kilowatt of installed capacity compared with silicon modules at the same facility. —Phil Szuromi INTRODUCTION: Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have achieved laboratory-scale efficiencies above 26% with improved stability; yet, scalable manufacturing remains challenging. High-efficiency devices rely on spin coating with antisolvent quenching, which enables uniform drying through laminar airflow, but this method is impractical for large-area modules. Alternatives such as nitrogen air knife drying suffer from one-dimensional (1D) airflow, which causes uneven film drying. Vacuum flash methods offer 2D airflow but struggle to sustain sufficient drying time for high–boiling point solvents. Both techniques fall short of commercial needs (>6500 cm2). Dry deposition under high vacuum simplifies film formation but restricts additive use, limiting efficiency and stability enhancements. Although progress is evident, achieving rapid, uniform crystallization over large areas without compromising solvent or additive flexibility remains critical for mass-producing efficient, stable perovskite solar modules (PSMs). RATIONALE: We developed a drying method with a 3D-printed model, the laminar air dryer (LAD), to dry square meter–sized perovskite films rapidly and uniformly. The LAD addresses key challenges in large-scale perovskite film production by emulating spin coating's uniform convective drying while enabling compatibility with slot-die–coated 0.79-m2 substrates. Unlike vacuum flash drying, which exhibits a brief airflow spike (1200 m s−1 peak, decaying rapidly), LAD maintains consistent laminar airflow, ensuring uniform drying, which is critical for thickness control and nucleation. RESULTS: Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis demonstrated LAD's superior solvent removal: Vacuum flash–dried films retained residual N,N′-dimethylformamide (DMF) (C=O peak at 1653 cm−1) and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) (S=O peaks at 910 to 1080 cm−1), whereas LAD-dried films aligned with solvent-free baselines. This efficiency minimizes defects, as ultraviolet (UV)–aged LAD modules retained 98.2% initial power versus 70.7% for vacuum flash, with electroluminescence imaging revealing fewer dark spots, confirming enhanced film stability. LAD's adjustable airflow and prolonged drying duration accommodate high–boiling point solvents and complex precursor formulations, overcoming the limitations of vacuum flash. By combining slot-die scalability with spin coating's precision, LAD offers a reproducible solution for high-performance perovskite modules. Equipped with optimized LAD structure, the production line produced 14,527 PSMs over the course of 15 days, achieving average power output of 111.4 W (14.1% efficiency) with 98.5% of the modules falling within ±2.5% of the mean value. A champion module reached 15% efficiency (118 W at 7906 cm2) and several PSMs passed three sets of International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) reliability tests, confirming industrial viability. Analysis of 1 year of operation data of these modules in a 0.5–MW peak (MWp) photovoltaic (PV) system shows that perovskite gains 29% advantage over silicon on energy yield per unit installed capacity, primarily owing to its better temperature characteristics. CONCLUSION: LAD drying enables perovskite modules with record high efficiency, combining spin coating and vacuum flash advantages. Field tests in subtropical climates show 29% higher output compared with that of silicon owing to low temperature coefficients. With <2% first-year degradation and a projected 9-year T90 life span, this advances single-junction perovskite commercialization. Perovskite film formation and solar cell performance.: (Left) A schematic of a LAD shroud drying a perovskite film. (Right, from top to bottom) PSM continuous production in sequence of slot-die coating and LAD drying; outdoor operation degradation rate; and a comparison of the 1-year energy yield between PSMs and silicon (Si) solar cells in terms of equivalent full sun hours (EFSH). (Background) Aerial view of a 0.5-MWp PSM rooftop system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]