Biology

Biology, the study of all living things, is an extensive field subdivided into categories based on the molecule, the cell, the organism, and the population. Molecular biology touches on biophysics and biochemistry. It is the branch of biology that deals with the structure and development of biological systems in terms of the physics and chemistry of their molecules. Cellular biology is closely related to molecular biology through understanding the functions and basic structure of the cell. The cell is the smallest structural unit of an organism that is capable of independent functioning, consisting of one or more nuclei, cytoplasm, and organelles, all surrounded by a semipermeable membrane. Botany is the science or study of plant life. Ecology, also called bionomics, is the study of relationships between organisms and their environments.

Developmental biology encompasses a number of issues, including gene regulation, evolution, and genetics. These are concepts of importance to vertebrates, invertebrates, and plants. A gene is a hereditary unit that occupies a particular location on a chromosome, determines a particular characteristic of an organism, and can undergo mutation. Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with heredity, especially the hereditary transmission and variation of inherited characteristics. Evolution is the theory that groups of organisms change with the passage of time, mainly as a result of natural selection, so that descendants differ morphologically and physiologically from their ancestors. Population genetics, the study of gene changes in populations, and ecology have been established subject areas since the 1930s. These two fields were combined in the 1960s to form a new discipline called population biology, which became established as a major subdivision of biological studies in the 1970s. Central to this field is evolutionary biology, in which the contributions of Charles Darwin are noted.

Microbiology is the branch of biology that deals with microorganisms. The study of bacteria, including their classification and the prevention of diseases that arise from bacterial infection, is the primary focus of microbiology. This branch is of interest not only to bacteriologists but also to chemists, biochemists, geneticists, pathologists, immunologists, and public health professionals. Parasitology is the study of parasites, organisms that feed on or in different organisms while contributing nothing to the survival of their hosts. Ethology is the scientific study of animal behavior. Animal behavioral studies have developed along two lines. The first of these, animal psychology, is primarily concerned with physiological psychology and has traditionally concentrated on laboratory techniques such as conditioning. The second, ethology, originated in observations of animals under natural conditions, concentrating on courtship, flocking, and other social contacts. One of the important developments in the field has been the focus on sociobiology, which is concerned with the behavior, ecology, and evolution of social animals such as bees, ants, schooling fish, flocking birds, and humans.

Ethics is the study of the general nature of morals and of specific moral choices. Bioethics addresses such issues as animal experimentation, cloning, euthanasia, gene therapy, genetic engineering, genome projects, protection of human research subjects, organ transplants, and patients’ rights.

Biotechnology is the industrial use of living organisms or biological techniques developed through basic research. Biotechnology products include antibiotics, insulin, interferon, and recombinant DNA, and techniques such as waste recycling. Throughout the world, various agencies monitor scientific progress in human genetics research to anticipate future developments, including ethical, legal, and social concerns, in basic and clinical research involving recombinant DNA, genetic testing, and xenotransplantation (the use of organs from other species of mammals for transplants). In addition to organs donated by humans, researchers have explored the use of partially or wholly artificial organs manufactured in the laboratory, as well as continued research with the organs from other animals.

Biodiversity focuses on such issues as conservation, extinction, and depletion from overexploitation, habitat pollution, global patterns and values of biodiversity, and endangered species protection.

Well-known pioneer biologists include: naturalist and explorer Sir Joseph Banks (1743–1820); naturalist and explorer Charles William Beebe (1877–1962); biochemist Günter Blobel (1936–2018); environmentalist Rachel Carson (1907–64); biochemist Stanley Cohen (1922–2020); biophysicist and codiscoverer of the structure of DNA, Francis Crick (1916–2004); naturalist and father of evolutionary theory Charles Darwin (1809–82); evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins (b. 1941); marine biologist Sylvia Earle (b. 1935); bacteriologist Paul Ehrlich (b. 1932); bacteriologist and discoverer of penicillin Sir Alexander Fleming (1881–1955); microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723); botanist and taxonomist Carolus Linnaeus (1707–23); ethologist Konrad Lorenz (1903–89); zoologist A. S. Loukashkin (1902–88); botanist and geneticist Barbara McClintock (1902–92); botanist and genetic theorist Gregor Mendel (1822–84); endocrinologist and inventor of the birth control pill Gregory Goodwin Pincus (1903–67); naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913); biophysicist and codiscoverer of the structure of DNA James Watson (b. 1928); Nobel Prize winner Hamilton O. Smith (b. 1931), whose work led to the creation of recombinant DNA technology; discoverer of genetic transduction, Norton David Zimmer (1928–2012); and sociobiologist Edward O. Wilson (1929–2021).

The field of biology continued to evolve in the twenty-first century. For example, epigenetics combines the study of epidemiology and genetics; epigeneticists look at how events that affected previous generations may have affected modern genes. The most important advances in the fields of biology and medicine were arguably in the field of epidemiology, with the rapid formulation of novel mRNA vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic declared in 2020. However, other advances were also made into the 2020s. One frontier in biology revolved around the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in science and medicine.

Principal Terms

Biodiversity: the total of all living organisms in an environment

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA): the carrier of all an organism’s genetic information

Xenotransplantation: the transplantation of organs from one species to another

Bibliography

Barresi, Michael, and Scott F. Gilbert. Developmental Biology. 13th ed., Sinauer, 2023.

Brooker, Robert J., et al. Biology. 6th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2022.

“Epigenetics.” NHS, 29 Mar. 2023, www.genomicseducation.hee.nhs.uk/genotes/knowledge-hub/epigenetics/. Accessed 26 Aug. 2024.

Higgins, Nick, and Tanya Lewis. “The Biggest Health and Biology Breakthroughs of 2022.” Scientific American, 20 Dec. 2022, www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-biggest-health-and-biology-breakthroughs-of-2022. Accessed 28 June 2023.

Lavers, Chris. Why Elephants Have Big Ears: Understanding Patterns of Life on Earth. St. Martin’s, 2001.

Meyr, Ernst. The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance. Reprint. Belknap, 1985.

Urry, Lisa A., et al. Campbell Biology. 12th ed., Pearson, 2020.

Watson, James D. The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA. Reprint. Simon, 1998.