African agriculture

• Categories: Agriculture; economic botany and plant uses; food; world regions

Rainfall—the dominant influence on agricultural output—varies greatly among Africa’s fifty-four countries. Without irrigation, agriculture requires a reliable annual rainfall of more than 30 inches (76.2 centimeters). Portions of Africa have serious problems from a lack of rainfall, such as increasing desertification and periods of drought.

Food output has declined, with per capita food production 10 percent less in the 1990s than it was in the 1980s, although trends have varied continuously in later decades due to population growth, climate change, and agricultural development efforts. In most African countries, however, more than 50 percent, and often 80 percent, of the population works in agriculture, mostly subsistence agriculture. Large portions of the continent, such as Mali and Sudan, have the potential of becoming granaries to much of the continent and producing considerable food exports.

Traditional African Agriculture

Traditionally, agriculture in Africa has been subsistence farming in small plots. It has been labor-intensive, relying upon family members. New land for farming was obtained by the slash-and-burn method (shifting cultivation). The trees in a forested area would be cut down and burned where they fell. The ashes from the burned trees fertilized the soil. Both men and women worked in farming. Slash-and-burn agriculture is common not only in Africa but also in tropical areas around the world. In areas of heavy rainfall, the rains wash out the nutrients from the soil and burned trees in a period of two to three years.

The crops grown depend upon the region. In the very dry, yet habitable, parts of Africa—such as the Sudano-Sahelian region that stretches from Senegal and Mali in the west of Africa to Sudan in the east—a key subsistence crop is green millet, a grain. Ground into a type of flour, it can be made into a bread-like substance. In moister areas, traditional crops are root and tuber crops, such as yams and cassava. Cassava has an outer surface or skin that is poisonous, but it can be treated to remove the poison. The tuber can then be ground and used to make a bread-like substance. Other important traditional crops are rice and corn, although Asian rice varieties and maize were widely spread or introduced through external contact, while indigenous African rice had already been cultivated in parts of West Africa.

Animal husbandry, or seminomadic herding, is another form of traditional agriculture. Problems that have arisen with this type of agriculture are the availability of water and grass or hay for cattle. Regions that are very moist, such as the Gulf of Guinea, which has rainforest, are not good for cattle because of the tsetse fly, which carries diseases such as sleeping sickness.

Crops

One of the most widely grown crops is rice, which is grown on more than one-third of the irrigated crop area in Africa. Cultivated mostly in wetlands and valley bottoms, rice is the most common crop in the humid areas of the Gulf of Guinea and Eastern Africa. It is also grown on the plateaus of Madagascar. In the northern and southern regions, rice represents only a small portion of the total crops under water management. Wheat and corn are cultivated and irrigated mostly in Egypt, Morocco, South Africa, Sudan, and Somalia.

Vegetables, including root and tuber crops, are present in all regions and almost every country. Vegetables are grown on about 8 percent of the cultivated areas under water management. In Algeria, Mauritania, Kenya, Burundi, and Rwanda, they are the most widespread crops under water management. Arboriculture (growing of fruit trees), which represents 6 percent of the total irrigated crops, is concentrated in the northern region and consists mostly of citrus fruits. Commercial crops (for cash and export) are grown mostly in Sudan and in the countries of the southern region and consist mostly of cotton and oilseeds. Other commercial crops in Africa are sugarcane, coffee, cocoa, oil, date palm, bananas, tobacco, and cut flowers. Sugarcane is grown in many African countries, particularly in regions with suitable climatic conditions. The other commercial crops are concentrated in a few countries.

North Africa

In Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt, the region’s agricultural resources are limited by its dry climate. Its products are those typical of the Mediterranean, steppe, and desert regions: wheat, barley, olives, grapes, citrus fruits, some vegetables, dates, sheep, and goats.

Agriculture employs about 9 percent of the working population in Libya and 19 percent in Egypt. From about the middle of the twentieth century, North Africa’s production failed to keep pace with its population growth and remained susceptible to large annual fluctuations. Cropland occupies about 62 percent of Tunisia, 17 percent of Algeria, 4 percent of Egypt, and only about 1 percent of Libya. Some export crops, such as citrus fruits, tobacco, and cotton, have suffered from strong international competition. The northern region is not a major contributor to the continent’s fish catch. Morocco, however, with its cool, plankton-rich Atlantic waters and access to the Mediterranean Sea, is one of the world’s largest fish producers.

Sudano-Sahelian Region

This region comprises Mauritania, the Western Sahara, Senegal, Gambia, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Chad, and Sudan. Because of the region’s extreme dryness, mostly subsistence farming and seminomadic herding are practiced. Millet is the primary crop. In the late twentieth century, this region was devastated by long droughts that caused famine and starvation. Mali is crossed by the Niger River, while Sudan is traversed by the Nile River. These great rivers provide plenty of water for irrigating fields. During the rainy season in Mali—typically June through September—the Niger River widens into a great, extensive floodplain. This area is good for growing rice. Similarly, in Sudan, the Blue and White Niles meet at Khartoum to form the Nile River.

Gulf of Guinea

This region comprises Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde, Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Côte d’Ivoire, Togo, Ghana, Benin, and Nigeria. With the exception of Nigeria, agriculture there is dominated by rice cultivation. The percentage of total land area that is under cultivation ranges from nearly 20 percent in Liberia to 58 percent in Sierra Leone.

Much of the cultivation is subsistence farming of yams and other crops. Ghana’s efforts in agriculture have been hampered by droughts. Erosion is another problem. Organic matter has been leached out of the soils by heavy rainfall and, along with deforestation, has led to erosion. Sea-level rise caused by climate change has caused additional erosion.

More than half of Nigeria’s available land is under cultivation. Increasing rainfall from the semiarid north to the tropically forested south allows for great crop diversity. Principal food crops are maize, millet, yams, sorghum, cassava, rice, potatoes, and vegetables. Nigeria was the world’s fourth-largest exporter of cocoa beans, with $2.2 billion exported in 2024. Its main destinations for cocoa beans were the Netherlands, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, and Belgium.

Central Region

This region comprises the Central African Republic, Cameroon, the Republic of the Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Burundi, Rwanda, and São Tomé and Príncipe. Cameroon has 7.2 million hectares of arable land. In 2024, Cameroon exported over $1 million in rice to areas such as the Central African Republic, Zambia, Ireland, and the United States. The percentage of arable land ranges from one-third for the Congo-Brazzaville to 81 percent for Rwanda. Cassava is harvested in Congo-Brazzaville, Congo-Kinshasa, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon. Maize is harvested in Congo-Brazzaville, Congo-Kinshasa, and Burundi. Sweet potatoes are harvested in Rwanda. Agriculture plays a role in the economies of São Tomé and Príncipe.

Eastern Region

This region comprises Eritrea, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania. Agriculture employs more than half of the labor force in Uganda and Ethiopia. Millions of small farms dominate agriculture in both countries. About 80 percent of Uganda’s land is suitable for agriculture—a high percentage compared to the majority of African countries, such as Ethiopia with 69 percent.

About eight million households in Tanzania are involved in agriculture. Traditional export crops include coffee, cotton, and cashew nuts. Major staple foods (corn, rice, and cassava) are exported in times of surplus. Tanzania’s climatic growing conditions are favorable for the production of a wide range of fruits, vegetables, and flowers. Drought-resistant crops (sorghum, millet, and cassava) and other staples such as onions, Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, bananas, and plantains are also produced.

Areas that have 20-30 inches (50-76 centimeters) of rainfall per year rely on a mixture of agriculture and livestock herding. Regions with a smaller annual rainfall or a long dry season can support only drought-resistant crops such as sorghum, millet, and cassava. Over large areas of eastern Africa, rainfall is inadequate for crop cultivation. The whole of Somalia and 70 percent of Kenya receive less than 20 inches (50 centimeters) of rain four years out of five. In these areas, the only feasible use of land is for raising livestock. Agriculture plays a limited role in the economies of Eritrea and Djibouti.

Southern Region

This region comprises Angola, Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Mozambique, Botswana, Lesotho, Eswatini, and South Africa. The arable percentage of the total land area ranges from 42 percent in Malawi to just 1 percent in Namibia. With the exception of Mozambique, where cassava predominates, corn is the major crop in the countries in this region.

About 13 percent of South Africa’s land area can be used for crop production. Rainfall varies across the country, and varied climatic zones and terrains enable the production of almost any kind of crop. The largest area of farmland is planted with corn, followed by wheat, then oats, sugarcane, and sunflowers. The nation is well known for the high quality of its fruits, such as apples and citrus.

Agriculture in Zimbabwe accounts for about 12-18 percent of its total economy. The main export crops are tobacco, cotton, and soybeans. Zimbabwe has experienced variability in food production and has faced periods of food insecurity. Its main food crops are corn, soybeans, oilseeds, fruits and vegetables, and sugar.

Mozambique’s agriculture has been badly hindered by civil war. However, the country has considerable potential for irrigation due to the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers. The irrigation potential is estimated to be 7.5 million acres. In the 1990s, only 110,000 acres were irrigated, growing rice, sugarcane, corn, and citrus. By 2024, the number of irrigated acres had increased to 118,000 hectares (291,000 acres).

According to the International Trade Association, in 2025, about 46 percent of Botswana’s land has been zoned for agriculture. Agriculture makes up less than 2 percent of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP). Of this, livestock production contributes 80 percent, mainly because many people operate subsistence farms. The principal food crops are sorghum and corn. Agriculture is one of the most important sectors in Namibia. About 25 million hectares of the country’s land are cultivable, which is about 30 percent. The major irrigated crops include corn, wheat, and cotton.

Indian Ocean Islands

This region comprises Madagascar, Mauritius, the Comoros, and the Seychelles. About 80 percent of its population lives in rural areas, many at subsistence levels. About 5.2 percent of Madagascar’s total land area (7.4 million acres) was under cultivation. Of the total land area, 55 percent supported livestock production. Cassava, planted almost everywhere on the island, is grown as well as corn and sweet potatoes, with smaller quantities of cotton, bananas, and cloves. The fisheries sector, especially the export of shrimp, has been the most rapidly growing area of the agricultural economy in the Indian Ocean Islands region.

About 77 to 80 percent of Mauritius’s cultivated land was used to grow sugarcane. The country produces about 3 million tons of sugarcane per year. The Seychelles has 1550 hectares of cultivated land. Of this, 15.5 square kilometers is used for agriculture. Agriculture contributes only 2.5 percent to the country’s GDP. The Comoros’ agriculture is heavily weighted toward rice, the staple food of the populace.

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