Ryanair Ltd.

Ryanair Ltd. is a Dublin-based budget airline founded in 1985, known for its extensive operations throughout Europe and beyond. It is one of the largest airlines in Europe by passenger numbers and has been recognized as the leading European airline from 2022 to 2023. Ryanair primarily operates Boeing 737 aircraft and serves over forty countries, including destinations in Africa and the Middle East. The airline initially began with a small fifteen-seat plane and has since expanded significantly, even carrying over one billion passengers by 2017.

Ryanair's business model focuses on low fares, resulting in a rapid increase in passengers, particularly after introducing online booking in the early 2000s. However, the airline has faced various controversies, including criticism regarding its labor practices, additional fees for services, and customer service issues. Despite these challenges, Ryanair has attempted to rebrand itself and improve its image, particularly since 2014. In recent years, the airline has continued to grow, achieving significant market capital and passenger volumes, while navigating the complexities brought on by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Full Article

Company information

  • Date founded: 1985
  • Industry: Travel
  • Corporate Headquarters: Dublin, Ireland
  • Type: Public

Ryanair DAC (commonly branded as Ryanair Ltd.; subsidiary of Ryanair Holdings plc group) is a budget airline serving Europe. Its headquarters are in Dublin, and its largest operational base is the London Stansted Airport. Ryanair is one of the largest European airlines and had the title of the largest European airline from 2022 till 2025 by the number of passengers carried. It is also known as one of the busiest airlines in Europe by sheer number of passengers. Ryanair mainly uses Boeing 737 aircraft. It has rapidly expanded and serves over thirty countries in Africa, the Middle East, and Europe. In 2017, Ryanair became the first European airline to have carried over one billion people. By 2024, the group’s fleet totaled 584 aircraft, including a growing number of Boeing 737-8200 (“Gamechanger”) aircraft; it also operated leased Airbus A320s through its Lauda unit.

History

Ryanair was established in 1985 (year of incorporation was 1984, with operations launched in 1985) as Danren Enterprises by Tony Ryan, Christopher Ryan, and Liam Lonergan. Operations began with a fifteen-seat Bandeirante plane and had a route from Waterford, Ireland, to London Gatwick Airport. In 1986, a second route—from Dublin, Ireland, to Luton Airport near London—was added to compete with airlines Aer Lingus and British Airways. Ryanair’s business expanded drastically with the addition of the second route; the airline went from 5,000 passengers in 1985 to 82,000 passengers in 1986.

Also in 1986, Ryanair took over the failing London European Airways at 85 percent and later provided a connecting flight to Amsterdam, Netherlands, and Brussels, Belgium. In 1987, the airline also expanded its flight network to more locations in the United Kingdom and Ireland. The Gulf War had a significant impact on air traffic, and Ryanair had to reduce its number of employees and saw a decrease in passengers. Despite these struggles, 1991 was the first year the airline saw a profit. Michael O’Leary was hired initially as financial advisor, later becoming the chief financial officer. In 1994, he was appointed the chief executive officer (CEO), and he decided that a streamlined model of low fares, no business class, and a single type of plane was the most cost-effective strategy. O’Leary modeled his business strategy on that of Southwest Airlines and rescheduled flights into the regional markets, which did not carry the cost of flying into international airports. In 1995, Ryanair reported that it had carried 2.26 million passengers.

Ryanair experienced a successful flotation on the Dublin stock exchange and launched routes to Stockholm, Sweden, and Oslo, Norway, from London, as well as routes to Paris, France, and Brussels, Belgium, from Dublin. After the success of these launches, the company was able to order new Boeing 737-800 planes.

In the early 2000s, Ryanair launched its website. The website allowed online booking and reduced prices because flights could be purchased directly by passengers and did not have to go through a travel agent. Within only a year, the website was taking care of over three-quarters of the company’s overall bookings. In 2001, Ryanair started a new base of operation at Brussels Charleroi Airport, and 155 more Boeing 737-800s were ordered to be delivered over eight years. Ryanair also acquired one of its competitors, Buzz, from KLM and took over its travel routes. Passenger traffic continued to grow, and in September 2006, Ryanair recorded that it had carried 42.5 million passengers. Also in 2006, however, Ryanair was criticized for poor training policies and aircraft hygiene by a documentary made for Britain’s Channel 4. Aer Lingus rejected Ryanair’s bid for a takeover in October 2006 for €1.48 billion; Ryanair then tried again in 2008, making a bid of €748 million, but Aer Lingus once again refused.

In the spring of 2010, the eruption of the Eyjafjallajokull volcano in Iceland created controversy for the company, as they initially refused to reimburse or care for passengers who had been stranded, despite EU regulations mandating that they do so. Italy’s civil aviation authority fined Ryanair for its refusal to comply with these regulations. That year, the company reported a loss of €10.3 million due to canceled flights and strikes.

In 2014, Ryanair moved its office to Airside Business Park in Swords, County Dublin, and agreed to purchase an additional 200 Boeing 737 MAX 8s. Two years later, Ryanair launched a corporate jet charter service, which let corporate groups hire individual jets. In 2017, Ryanair partnered with the Spanish airline Air Europa in order to offer long-haul flights to North, Central, and South America. The partnership was disbanded, however, in 2019, with Ryanair losing access to Air Europa’s long-haul flight capabilities. The same year, Ryanair dispelled rumors that the company would be expanding with flights to the United States despite the purchase of 135 extended-range Boeing jets. The company instead stated that they were working to extend its operations further into Africa, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe.

Like most airlines, Ryanair was greatly impacted by the COVID-19 epidemic that began in 2020. The airline was forced to cease operations for several months and cut thousands of jobs. Ryanair CEO Michael O’Leary was critical of Ireland’s COVID-19 protocols as well. Still, by 2022, Ryanair was once again in full operation, and it remained Europe’s biggest airline by number of passengers, carrying 160 million passengers. In 2023, Ryanair was named the most valuable airline as measured by market capital and the largest airline outside the United States.

In 2024, Ryanair reported that traffic grew 9% and profit after tax rose to €1.92 billion. The group also continued expanding capacity through deliveries of new aircraft: It took delivery of Boeing 737-8200 aircrafts in the fiscal year 2024, reportedly having 146 of the type in its fleet by March 31, 2024. Ryanair presented the 737-8200 as a key efficiency upgrade, citing lower fuel consumption per seat and reduced noise compared with its older fleet. It also tied longer-term growth to its Boeing 737 MAX 10 order (firm orders plus options), which it describes as offering improved fuel, emissions, and noise performance.

Impact

Ryanair has proven itself to be a successful, low-cost airline, but that does not mean the company has not run into its share of controversy. In the company’s early years, employees were discouraged from unionizing because they had shares in the company, and it was mentioned that they would have a significant say in how Ryanair was operated. As the company gained success, however, employees were no longer given shares, and a union was never established. Critics accused the company of being antiunion, an allegation that the company denied for many years, saying that there was nothing stopping employees from unionizing (despite evidence to the contrary). Eventually, the Ryanair Pilot Group (RPG) was established in 2012 to represent pilots, though it did not find much success and was openly derided by Michael O’Leary. Contracts were considered difficult; they included expensive training and often required employees to open bank accounts in Gibraltar in order to receive paychecks. In 2014, Ryanair was ordered to pay €8.3 million in penalties for violating French labor laws by giving their French employees Irish contracts to save money on taxes and other expenses. Ryanair was also accused of not complying with Danish work regulations at its base in Copenhagen. The company pulled out of Denmark instead of adapting to Danish laws.

Ryanair has also been under fire for its optional extra charges. Because the fares are so low, Ryanair often charges additional fees for services that include paying with a credit card, using airport check-in facilities, and checking luggage. Passengers have been required to print out their boarding passes at home, or they will be charged a substantial fee for a reprinted boarding pass.

Ryanair’s customer service has also been criticized, though, since 2014, it has tried to rebrand itself as a more family-friendly airline. The company has also been criticized for false advertising and fuel incidents.

In 2016, the airline actively campaigned against the Brexit referendum (in which the United Kingdom voted on whether or not to leave the European Union) through pro-Europe advertisements and slogans on their planes. The company was under investigation for running an advertisement that offered discount flights to customers who would vote to remain. That same year, Ryanair took an uncharacteristic move toward upmarketing by starting a corporate jet service, with planes available for rent by the hour that will offer fine dining and reclining leather seats.

Ryanair finally agreed to recognize pilot unions for the first time in late 2017, a move widely seen as a response to a growing backlash against the company’s labor practices. Analysts expected the move to have a significant impact on the airline, forcing it to behave more like older, traditional airlines and perhaps to lose some of its ultra-low-cost advantages. Despite the agreement, talks between the company and unions quickly fell apart, and Ryanair faced its first-ever strike by pilots in Germany later in December 2017. Several flights were delayed, and union leadership declared the operation a success in that it showed it was possible to pressure Ryanair’s management in the fight for better working conditions. Controversy continued to follow Ryanair into the 2020s. In 2022, the airline faced backlash when it required passengers from South Africa to the United Kingdom to take a language test to prove the authenticity of their passports. Ryanair dropped the Afrikaans test.

In the mid-2020s, Ryanair’s dispute with online travel agencies (OTAs) became a significant regulatory issue. In December 2025, Italy’s competition authority fined Ryanair €256 million, alleging an abusive strategy to restrict OTA ticket sales through technical and procedural barriers; Ryanair said it would appeal.


Bibliography

“About Us: Our Network.” Ryanair, 2024, corporate.ryanair.com/about-us/our-network. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Aldous, Richard. Tony Ryan: Ireland’s Aviator. Gill, 2013.

Crouch, David. “Ryanair Closes Denmark Operation to Head off Union Row.” The Guardian, 17 July 2015, www.theguardian.com/business/2015/jul/17/ryanair-closes-denmark-operation-temporarily-to-sidestep-union-dispute. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Donnelly, Ellie. “Ryanair Lands Title of World’s Largest Airline by Market Cap.” Business Post, 15 Dec. 2023, www.businesspost.ie/news/ryanair-lands-title-of-worlds-largest-airline-by-market-cap. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

“Eurocontrol – European Aviation Overview.” Eurocontrol, 12 Mar. 2025, www.eurocontrol.int/sites/default/files/2025-03/eurocontrol-european-aviation-overview-20250312.pdf. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

“Europe’s Top 20 Airline Groups by Passengers 2022: Ryanair Extends Its Lead.” CAPA – Centre for Aviation, 23 Mar. 2023, centreforaviation.com/analysis/reports/europes-top-20-airline-groups-by-passengers-2022-ryanair-extends-its-lead-642197. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

“Europe’s Top 20 Airline Groups by Passengers 2024: Ryanair on Top Again.” CAPA, 28 Mar. 2025, centreforaviation.com/analysis/reports/europes-top-20-airline-groups-by-passengers-2024-ryanair-on-top-again-713128. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Flanagan, Peter. “Ryanair Drops Afrikaans Test Despite Major Problem with False SA Passports.” News24, 15 June 2022, www.news24.com/business/companies/ryanair-drops-afrikaans-test-despite-major-problem-with-false-sa-passports-20220615. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Gallardo, Cristina. “Ryanair Lifts Outlook on Strong Demand, Boeing Delivery Improvements.” The Wall Street Journal, 26 Jan. 2026, www.wsj.com/business/earnings/ryanair-upgrades-fiscal-2026-outlook-on-strong-demand-169fc04e. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Gallardo, Cristina. “Ryanair Posts Net Profit Increase, Lifts Full-Year Passenger Outlook.” The Wall Street Journal, 3 Nov. 2025, www.wsj.com/business/earnings/ryanair-posts-net-profit-increase-lifts-full-year-passenger-outlook-8bfb649f. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Jolly, Jasper. “Ryanair Fined €256m Over ‘Abusive Strategy’ to Limit Ticket Sales by Online Travel Agencies.” The Guardian, 23 Dec. 2025, www.theguardian.com/business/2025/dec/23/ryanair-fined-limit-online-travel-agencies-ticket-sales-ota. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

O’Sullivan, Michelle, and Patrick Gunnigle. “Non-Union Employee Representation, Union Avoidance, and the Managerial Agenda.” Economic and Industrial Democracy, vol. 33, 2012, pp. 163–83, doi:10.1177/0143831X11401924. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Riegel, Ralph. “Ryanair Rules Out US Flights Despite Buying 135 New Long-Range Jets.” Independent [Ireland], 17 Sept. 2018, www.independent.ie/business/irish/ryanair-rules-out-us-flights-despite-buying-135-new-longrange-jets-37322484.html. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

“Ryanair Group – Annual Report 2024.” Ryanair, investor.ryanair.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Ryanair-2024-Annual-Report.pdf. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

“Ryanair Group – Annual Report 2025.” Ryanair, investor.ryanair.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Ryanair-2025-Annual-Report.pdf. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

“Ryanair Imposes Afrikaans Language Test on South African Passengers.” NPR, 7 June 2022, www.npr.org/2022/06/07/1103441895/ryanair-requires-afrikaans-language-test-on-south-african-passengers. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Topham, Gwyn. “Ryanair Faces €8.3M Penalty for Breaching French Labour Laws.” The Guardian, 28 Oct. 2014, www.theguardian.com/business/2014/oct/28/ryanair-penalty-breaching-french-labour-laws. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Tsang, Amie. “Ryanair, Europe’s Cut-Price Behemoth, Agrees to Recognize Pilot Unions for the First Time.” The New York Times, 15 Dec. 2017, www.nytimes.com/2017/12/15/business/ryanair-pilot-unions.html. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Tsang, Amie. “Ryanair Hit with Its First Pilot Strike, in Germany.” The New York Times, 22 Dec. 2017, www.nytimes.com/2017/12/22/business/ryanair-pilot-strike.html. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Vannahme, Adrian. “Ryanair Ends Partnership with Air Europa.” Airline Geeks, 24 Feb. 2019, airlinegeeks.com/2019/02/24/ryanair-ends-partnership-with-air-europa. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Full Article

Company information

  • Date founded: 1985
  • Industry: Travel
  • Corporate Headquarters: Dublin, Ireland
  • Type: Public

Ryanair DAC (commonly branded as Ryanair Ltd.; subsidiary of Ryanair Holdings plc group) is a budget airline serving Europe. Its headquarters are in Dublin, and its largest operational base is the London Stansted Airport. Ryanair is one of the largest European airlines and had the title of the largest European airline from 2022 till 2025 by the number of passengers carried. It is also known as one of the busiest airlines in Europe by sheer number of passengers. Ryanair mainly uses Boeing 737 aircraft. It has rapidly expanded and serves over thirty countries in Africa, the Middle East, and Europe. In 2017, Ryanair became the first European airline to have carried over one billion people. By 2024, the group’s fleet totaled 584 aircraft, including a growing number of Boeing 737-8200 (“Gamechanger”) aircraft; it also operated leased Airbus A320s through its Lauda unit.

History

Ryanair was established in 1985 (year of incorporation was 1984, with operations launched in 1985) as Danren Enterprises by Tony Ryan, Christopher Ryan, and Liam Lonergan. Operations began with a fifteen-seat Bandeirante plane and had a route from Waterford, Ireland, to London Gatwick Airport. In 1986, a second route—from Dublin, Ireland, to Luton Airport near London—was added to compete with airlines Aer Lingus and British Airways. Ryanair’s business expanded drastically with the addition of the second route; the airline went from 5,000 passengers in 1985 to 82,000 passengers in 1986.

Also in 1986, Ryanair took over the failing London European Airways at 85 percent and later provided a connecting flight to Amsterdam, Netherlands, and Brussels, Belgium. In 1987, the airline also expanded its flight network to more locations in the United Kingdom and Ireland. The Gulf War had a significant impact on air traffic, and Ryanair had to reduce its number of employees and saw a decrease in passengers. Despite these struggles, 1991 was the first year the airline saw a profit. Michael O’Leary was hired initially as financial advisor, later becoming the chief financial officer. In 1994, he was appointed the chief executive officer (CEO), and he decided that a streamlined model of low fares, no business class, and a single type of plane was the most cost-effective strategy. O’Leary modeled his business strategy on that of Southwest Airlines and rescheduled flights into the regional markets, which did not carry the cost of flying into international airports. In 1995, Ryanair reported that it had carried 2.26 million passengers.

Ryanair experienced a successful flotation on the Dublin stock exchange and launched routes to Stockholm, Sweden, and Oslo, Norway, from London, as well as routes to Paris, France, and Brussels, Belgium, from Dublin. After the success of these launches, the company was able to order new Boeing 737-800 planes.

In the early 2000s, Ryanair launched its website. The website allowed online booking and reduced prices because flights could be purchased directly by passengers and did not have to go through a travel agent. Within only a year, the website was taking care of over three-quarters of the company’s overall bookings. In 2001, Ryanair started a new base of operation at Brussels Charleroi Airport, and 155 more Boeing 737-800s were ordered to be delivered over eight years. Ryanair also acquired one of its competitors, Buzz, from KLM and took over its travel routes. Passenger traffic continued to grow, and in September 2006, Ryanair recorded that it had carried 42.5 million passengers. Also in 2006, however, Ryanair was criticized for poor training policies and aircraft hygiene by a documentary made for Britain’s Channel 4. Aer Lingus rejected Ryanair’s bid for a takeover in October 2006 for €1.48 billion; Ryanair then tried again in 2008, making a bid of €748 million, but Aer Lingus once again refused.

In the spring of 2010, the eruption of the Eyjafjallajokull volcano in Iceland created controversy for the company, as they initially refused to reimburse or care for passengers who had been stranded, despite EU regulations mandating that they do so. Italy’s civil aviation authority fined Ryanair for its refusal to comply with these regulations. That year, the company reported a loss of €10.3 million due to canceled flights and strikes.

In 2014, Ryanair moved its office to Airside Business Park in Swords, County Dublin, and agreed to purchase an additional 200 Boeing 737 MAX 8s. Two years later, Ryanair launched a corporate jet charter service, which let corporate groups hire individual jets. In 2017, Ryanair partnered with the Spanish airline Air Europa in order to offer long-haul flights to North, Central, and South America. The partnership was disbanded, however, in 2019, with Ryanair losing access to Air Europa’s long-haul flight capabilities. The same year, Ryanair dispelled rumors that the company would be expanding with flights to the United States despite the purchase of 135 extended-range Boeing jets. The company instead stated that they were working to extend its operations further into Africa, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe.

Like most airlines, Ryanair was greatly impacted by the COVID-19 epidemic that began in 2020. The airline was forced to cease operations for several months and cut thousands of jobs. Ryanair CEO Michael O’Leary was critical of Ireland’s COVID-19 protocols as well. Still, by 2022, Ryanair was once again in full operation, and it remained Europe’s biggest airline by number of passengers, carrying 160 million passengers. In 2023, Ryanair was named the most valuable airline as measured by market capital and the largest airline outside the United States.

In 2024, Ryanair reported that traffic grew 9% and profit after tax rose to €1.92 billion. The group also continued expanding capacity through deliveries of new aircraft: It took delivery of Boeing 737-8200 aircrafts in the fiscal year 2024, reportedly having 146 of the type in its fleet by March 31, 2024. Ryanair presented the 737-8200 as a key efficiency upgrade, citing lower fuel consumption per seat and reduced noise compared with its older fleet. It also tied longer-term growth to its Boeing 737 MAX 10 order (firm orders plus options), which it describes as offering improved fuel, emissions, and noise performance.

Impact

Ryanair has proven itself to be a successful, low-cost airline, but that does not mean the company has not run into its share of controversy. In the company’s early years, employees were discouraged from unionizing because they had shares in the company, and it was mentioned that they would have a significant say in how Ryanair was operated. As the company gained success, however, employees were no longer given shares, and a union was never established. Critics accused the company of being antiunion, an allegation that the company denied for many years, saying that there was nothing stopping employees from unionizing (despite evidence to the contrary). Eventually, the Ryanair Pilot Group (RPG) was established in 2012 to represent pilots, though it did not find much success and was openly derided by Michael O’Leary. Contracts were considered difficult; they included expensive training and often required employees to open bank accounts in Gibraltar in order to receive paychecks. In 2014, Ryanair was ordered to pay €8.3 million in penalties for violating French labor laws by giving their French employees Irish contracts to save money on taxes and other expenses. Ryanair was also accused of not complying with Danish work regulations at its base in Copenhagen. The company pulled out of Denmark instead of adapting to Danish laws.

Ryanair has also been under fire for its optional extra charges. Because the fares are so low, Ryanair often charges additional fees for services that include paying with a credit card, using airport check-in facilities, and checking luggage. Passengers have been required to print out their boarding passes at home, or they will be charged a substantial fee for a reprinted boarding pass.

Ryanair’s customer service has also been criticized, though, since 2014, it has tried to rebrand itself as a more family-friendly airline. The company has also been criticized for false advertising and fuel incidents.

In 2016, the airline actively campaigned against the Brexit referendum (in which the United Kingdom voted on whether or not to leave the European Union) through pro-Europe advertisements and slogans on their planes. The company was under investigation for running an advertisement that offered discount flights to customers who would vote to remain. That same year, Ryanair took an uncharacteristic move toward upmarketing by starting a corporate jet service, with planes available for rent by the hour that will offer fine dining and reclining leather seats.

Ryanair finally agreed to recognize pilot unions for the first time in late 2017, a move widely seen as a response to a growing backlash against the company’s labor practices. Analysts expected the move to have a significant impact on the airline, forcing it to behave more like older, traditional airlines and perhaps to lose some of its ultra-low-cost advantages. Despite the agreement, talks between the company and unions quickly fell apart, and Ryanair faced its first-ever strike by pilots in Germany later in December 2017. Several flights were delayed, and union leadership declared the operation a success in that it showed it was possible to pressure Ryanair’s management in the fight for better working conditions. Controversy continued to follow Ryanair into the 2020s. In 2022, the airline faced backlash when it required passengers from South Africa to the United Kingdom to take a language test to prove the authenticity of their passports. Ryanair dropped the Afrikaans test.

In the mid-2020s, Ryanair’s dispute with online travel agencies (OTAs) became a significant regulatory issue. In December 2025, Italy’s competition authority fined Ryanair €256 million, alleging an abusive strategy to restrict OTA ticket sales through technical and procedural barriers; Ryanair said it would appeal.


Bibliography

“About Us: Our Network.” Ryanair, 2024, corporate.ryanair.com/about-us/our-network. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Aldous, Richard. Tony Ryan: Ireland’s Aviator. Gill, 2013.

Crouch, David. “Ryanair Closes Denmark Operation to Head off Union Row.” The Guardian, 17 July 2015, www.theguardian.com/business/2015/jul/17/ryanair-closes-denmark-operation-temporarily-to-sidestep-union-dispute. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Donnelly, Ellie. “Ryanair Lands Title of World’s Largest Airline by Market Cap.” Business Post, 15 Dec. 2023, www.businesspost.ie/news/ryanair-lands-title-of-worlds-largest-airline-by-market-cap. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

“Eurocontrol – European Aviation Overview.” Eurocontrol, 12 Mar. 2025, www.eurocontrol.int/sites/default/files/2025-03/eurocontrol-european-aviation-overview-20250312.pdf. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

“Europe’s Top 20 Airline Groups by Passengers 2022: Ryanair Extends Its Lead.” CAPA – Centre for Aviation, 23 Mar. 2023, centreforaviation.com/analysis/reports/europes-top-20-airline-groups-by-passengers-2022-ryanair-extends-its-lead-642197. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

“Europe’s Top 20 Airline Groups by Passengers 2024: Ryanair on Top Again.” CAPA, 28 Mar. 2025, centreforaviation.com/analysis/reports/europes-top-20-airline-groups-by-passengers-2024-ryanair-on-top-again-713128. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Flanagan, Peter. “Ryanair Drops Afrikaans Test Despite Major Problem with False SA Passports.” News24, 15 June 2022, www.news24.com/business/companies/ryanair-drops-afrikaans-test-despite-major-problem-with-false-sa-passports-20220615. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Gallardo, Cristina. “Ryanair Lifts Outlook on Strong Demand, Boeing Delivery Improvements.” The Wall Street Journal, 26 Jan. 2026, www.wsj.com/business/earnings/ryanair-upgrades-fiscal-2026-outlook-on-strong-demand-169fc04e. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Gallardo, Cristina. “Ryanair Posts Net Profit Increase, Lifts Full-Year Passenger Outlook.” The Wall Street Journal, 3 Nov. 2025, www.wsj.com/business/earnings/ryanair-posts-net-profit-increase-lifts-full-year-passenger-outlook-8bfb649f. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Jolly, Jasper. “Ryanair Fined €256m Over ‘Abusive Strategy’ to Limit Ticket Sales by Online Travel Agencies.” The Guardian, 23 Dec. 2025, www.theguardian.com/business/2025/dec/23/ryanair-fined-limit-online-travel-agencies-ticket-sales-ota. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

O’Sullivan, Michelle, and Patrick Gunnigle. “Non-Union Employee Representation, Union Avoidance, and the Managerial Agenda.” Economic and Industrial Democracy, vol. 33, 2012, pp. 163–83, doi:10.1177/0143831X11401924. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Riegel, Ralph. “Ryanair Rules Out US Flights Despite Buying 135 New Long-Range Jets.” Independent [Ireland], 17 Sept. 2018, www.independent.ie/business/irish/ryanair-rules-out-us-flights-despite-buying-135-new-longrange-jets-37322484.html. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

“Ryanair Group – Annual Report 2024.” Ryanair, investor.ryanair.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Ryanair-2024-Annual-Report.pdf. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

“Ryanair Group – Annual Report 2025.” Ryanair, investor.ryanair.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Ryanair-2025-Annual-Report.pdf. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

“Ryanair Imposes Afrikaans Language Test on South African Passengers.” NPR, 7 June 2022, www.npr.org/2022/06/07/1103441895/ryanair-requires-afrikaans-language-test-on-south-african-passengers. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Topham, Gwyn. “Ryanair Faces €8.3M Penalty for Breaching French Labour Laws.” The Guardian, 28 Oct. 2014, www.theguardian.com/business/2014/oct/28/ryanair-penalty-breaching-french-labour-laws. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Tsang, Amie. “Ryanair, Europe’s Cut-Price Behemoth, Agrees to Recognize Pilot Unions for the First Time.” The New York Times, 15 Dec. 2017, www.nytimes.com/2017/12/15/business/ryanair-pilot-unions.html. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Tsang, Amie. “Ryanair Hit with Its First Pilot Strike, in Germany.” The New York Times, 22 Dec. 2017, www.nytimes.com/2017/12/22/business/ryanair-pilot-strike.html. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

Vannahme, Adrian. “Ryanair Ends Partnership with Air Europa.” Airline Geeks, 24 Feb. 2019, airlinegeeks.com/2019/02/24/ryanair-ends-partnership-with-air-europa. Accessed 29 Jan. 2026.

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