RESEARCH STARTER

Lake Winnipeg

Lake Winnipeg is the largest lake in Manitoba, Canada, and ranks as the tenth largest freshwater lake globally by surface area. With a length of 270 miles (435 kilometers) and covering approximately 9,460 square miles (24,500 square kilometers), it is a remnant of the ancient Lake Agassiz formed during glacial retreat roughly 12,000 years ago. The lake plays a crucial role in the local economy, providing hydropower, commercial fishing, and recreational opportunities. However, it faces significant environmental challenges, including nutrient pollution from agricultural runoff, invasive species like zebra mussels, and the impacts of climate change, which threaten aquatic biodiversity and water quality.

The watershed of Lake Winnipeg is vast, encompassing parts of several Canadian provinces and U.S. states, complicating management efforts due to its extensive geography and multiple jurisdictions. The lake's ecosystem supports a variety of fish species, vital for both commercial and subsistence fishing, particularly for Indigenous communities. Conservation efforts, such as the Lake Winnipeg Action Plan, aim to address the increasing nutrient loading and restore ecological balance. Overall, Lake Winnipeg serves as both a valuable natural resource and a focal point for ongoing environmental challenges and stewardship initiatives.

Full Article

  • Category: Inland Aquatic Biomes.
  • Geographic Location: North America.
  • Summary: This relatively pristine freshwater habitat is under stress from anthropogenic sources of excess nutrients, invasive species, and climate change.

Lake Winnipeg is the largest lake in the Canadian province of Manitoba, and a valuable source of hydropower, commercial fishing, and recreation for the region. Its name is from the Cree term for muddy waters. The watershed is almost forty times greater than the surface of the lake; it is shaped by environmental forces and human activities in an extensive area spanning Canada and the United States. The water quality and aquatic biodiversity of Lake Winnipeg are threatened by excess nutrients, invasive species, and climate change, while the large size and multiple jurisdictions of the watershed present further challenges for water management and policy decisions.

Among the largest freshwater lakes in the world (tenth in terms of surface area), Lake Winnipeg measures 258 miles (416 kilometers) north to south and spreads across approximately 9,460 square miles (24,500 square kilometers). It is the largest remnant of ancient Lake Agassiz, formed by glacial retreat in North America about 12,000 years ago. Lake Winnipeg consists of a large north basin and a smaller, comparatively shallow south basin; these are separated by a narrow channel that carries water from the south basin northward. Compared with other large lakes, Lake Winnipeg is relatively shallow, with an average depth of 39 feet (12 meters). This contributes to a fairly short water residence time of three to four years for the lake as a whole, and further affects the water temperature, volume, and ecosystem functions.

The Lake Winnipeg watershed is nearly 386,000 square miles (1 million square kilometers), stretching from the Rocky Mountain foothills to within a few miles (kilometers) of Lake Superior and covering parts of four provinces (Manitoba, Ontario, Saskatchewan, and Alberta) and four US states (North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, and Montana). River flow is the most significant source of water to the lake, which is fed by three major river systems: the Saskatchewan River from the west, the Red River from the south, and the Winnipeg River from the southeast. The Winnipeg River contributes nearly half of the total inflow to Lake Winnipeg, followed by the Saskatchewan River (25 percent), the Red River (16 percent), other tributaries, and precipitation. The only outlet from the lake is the Nelson River, flowing northward to Hudson Bay, with evaporation also contributing to water loss.

Biodiversity

Walleye and whitefish are the most commonly fished species in the lake, accounting for the bulk of commercial fishing. Lake Winnipeg was also once the main source of goldeye. Other native fish include sauger, yellow perch, troutperch, burbot, freshwater drum, lake cisco, and emerald shiner. Fish designated as at risk (by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada) include silver chub and shortjaw cisco. The lake supports not only commercial and recreational fishing, but subsistence fishing for the local Indigenous population.

Several introduced species in the lake are having a considerable influence on ecological relationships, by competing with native species for food and other resources. Aquatic invasive animal species known to occur in Lake Winnipeg include the common carp, rainbow smelt, white bass, Asian tapeworm, and a zooplankton species (Bosmina coregoni). Rainbow smelt were the dominant prey fish species in the north basin of the lake, and scientists were investigating their effect on the harvest and production of walleye, an important commercial native species. However, by the 2020s, the population of both the rainbow smelt and the walleye significantly reduced because of uncontrolled fishing, affecting the sustainability of the lake’s ecosystem.

A particularly notable invasive species is the zebra mussel, which made its way to the lake from the Red River watershed by 2013. A boom in zebra mussels in the lake in 2015 had major environmental impacts, with scientists conceding that little could be done to reverse the invasion. The mussels are considered a major disruptor of ecosystems due to their quick breeding and consumption of microorganisms, and also a detriment to recreation due to their sharp shells covering the lakebed. By 2019, the zebra mussel problem had escalated, as the species had made its way to the lake’s shores. In some spots, the mussel’s sharp shells completely covered parts of the shoreline. Another threat was the spiny water flea, which was identified downstream from Pointe du Bois Dam on the Winnipeg River in 2009. Managers remain concerned about these invasive species migrating up- or downstream, as they may further affect ecosystem health and economic activities in Lake Winnipeg.

Human Impact

Lake Winnipeg provides important socioeconomic benefits to the region. It is one of the world’s largest lakes used for hydroelectric regulation and supplies Manitoba Hydro, the Crown Corporation hydroelectric utility, with major portions of its storage and generating capacity. Regulated since 1976, water flows around Lake Winnipeg now create hundreds of millions of dollars’ worth of electrical power each year, with a significant portion of that revenue resulting from exports to other Canadian provinces and the United States.

This aquatic ecosystem also supports the most important commercial fisheries in Manitoba; in 2020s, an estimated 2,000 licensed commercial fisheries operated in Manitoba, with a significant percentage of the fisheries functioning on the lake. Additionally, dozens of communities along the shoreline, as well as populations downstream, rely on the water quality of the lake for drinking water.

Water quality in Lake Winnipeg has deteriorated during the late twentieth century, primarily from excess nutrients loaded into the lake through watershed sources. The catchment is dominated by agricultural use; it supports tens of millions of livestock and millions of people. Monitoring of watershed nutrient sources has revealed that cropland fertilizers carry the largest amounts of phosphorus to the lake through surface runoff and flooding, mainly through the Red River. Human and livestock wastes contribute additional loads.

Phosphorus and nitrogen are the two major nutrients contributing to the increased frequency and intensity of algal blooms that threaten the Lake Winnipeg biome. More than 80 percent of the algae that form blooms in the lake during the ice-free seasons are blue-green algae or cyanobacteria, of particular concern because of their detrimental effect on the ecosystem. Cyanobacteria are a less desirable food source than other algae types for organisms in the lake, leading to species accumulation and dominance. When these algae die and sink down to the bottom of the lake, their decomposition by bacteria consumes oxygen in the water; this reduces the available oxygen necessary for fish and other organisms in the food web. In addition, cyanobacteria have the potential to produce potent toxins that may pose health risks to humans and other animals. These water-quality changes can affect the lake’s ecosystem sustainability, safety for the public, and aesthetic appeal.

According to the 2020 edition of the report “State of Lake Winnipeg,” the lake was highly vulnerable to climate change (in addition to the other related challenges from invasive species, fishing pressures, nitrogen and phosphorus levels in the water, and changing land and water management). With the region warming faster than the global average, the extreme heat events, which were predicted to occur in the twenty-first century and beyond, have started impacting water availability for agriculture, hydroelectric production, and municipal uses, such as water needed to fight forest fires. Global climate models predicted that the south basin’s summer water temperatures could rise 9 degrees F (5 degrees C) by 2085. Research also suggested that the diversity of aquatic species in the lake would decline as water temperature rises. Increases in temperature and water levels could affect the nutrient load in the lake.

Increased temperatures in central Canada will likely exacerbate the establishment of invasive species in Lake Winnipeg from southern regions and favor species that thrive in higher water temperatures. From 1969 to 1990, the algal species composition during warm months shifted from a diverse assemblage to significant dominance of blue-green species with a tolerance for higher temperatures. Earlier spring melt and later freezes would lengthen the duration of the open water season and create warmer water temperatures, which could have detrimental effects for more than twelve coldwater fish species, including the commercial species of whitefish. Temperature-sensitive life cycles of aquatic insects may be sufficiently altered to cause shifts in abundance and species composition that disrupt food web functioning on a large scale.

In 2003, the Manitoba provincial government announced the Lake Winnipeg Action Plan, which aims to reduce phosphorus and nitrogen loading to Lake Winnipeg through several strategies. The plan strives to protect riparian growth, address fertilizer applications, introduce new sewage and septic regulations, reduce shoreline erosion, and engage other jurisdictions on nutrient management within the watershed. The Lake Winnipeg Stewardship Board was also initiated under this plan to identify necessary actions and make recommendations for reducing phosphorus and nitrogen loads to pre-1970 levels. The board members represented a variety of interests, including fishing, agriculture, urban land use, First Nations; federal, provincial, and municipal government, and nongovernmental organizations.

Scientific research has also been advanced through intensive federal, provincial, collaborative, and independent research and monitoring programs. In 2008, Environment Canada and Manitoba Water Stewardship partnered in the Lake Winnipeg Basin Initiative, an effort to summarize accumulated scientific knowledge of the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the lake and its basin. The plan initially allocated approximately $18 million to fund more than forty projects throughout the basin. Phase II of the plan began in 2012 with $18 million in funding to encourage scientists and the public to take a more active role in protecting the lake. In 2010, Manitoba and the federal government signed a memorandum agreeing to work together for the environmental health of Lake Winnipeg, and the agreement was extended several times. In 2024, the government of Manitoba set formal nutrient targets for Manitoba’s lakes and rivers, including Lake Winnipeg. These regulations were intended to increase water quality. The federal government also established the Canada Water Agency, headquartered in Winnipeg, to coordinate freshwater protection efforts across Canada, including work related to Lake Winnipeg. In 2025, the Canada Water Agency announced $1.6 million in funding for ten projects to support research, wetland restoration, and nutrient-reduction efforts in the Lake Winnipeg Basin.


Bibliography

“Background: Evaluation of the Lake Winnipeg Basin Initiative.” Canada.ca, Government of Canada, n.d., www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/corporate/transparency/priorities-management/evaluations/evaluation-lake-winnipeg-basin-initiative/background.html. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

“Canada Water Agency Advances Efforts to Restore and Protect Lake Winnipeg.” Canada.ca, Canada Water Agency, 18 Oct. 2025, www.canada.ca/en/canada-water-agency/news/2025/10/canada-water-agency-advances-efforts-to-restore-and-protect-lake-winnipeg.html. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

Kroft, Emily. “The Case of Eco-Certification in Manitoba’s Commercial Fisheries: Path Forward for Manitoba Fishers.” International Institute for Sustainable Development, Aug. 2024, www.iisd.org/system/files/2024-08/eco-certification-manitoba-commercial-fisheries.pdf. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

“Lake Winnipeg Biome.” Climate Change Connection, 28 Dec. 2015, climatechangeconnection.org/impacts/lake-winnipeg-impacts/lake-winnipeg-biome/. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

“Lake Winnipeg.” Living Lakes, livinglakes.org/lake-winnipeg/. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

“Lake Winnipeg.” Manitoba, www.gov.mb.ca/sd/water/lakes-beaches-rivers/lake-winnipeg.html#. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

“Manitoba Government Taking Action to Protect Lake Winnipeg.” Manitoba, 27 Aug. 2024, news.gov.mb.ca/news/index.html?item=64777. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

“Manitoba Memorandum of Understanding on a Nature Agreement.” Government of Canada, 7 Mar. 2025, www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/integrated-nature-initiatives/nature-agreements/canada-manitoba-mou-on-nature-agreement.html. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

Mann, Mark. “Anger and Indifference on Lake Winnipeg.” The Walrus, 4 June 2020, thewalrus.ca/anger-and-indifference-on-lake-winnipeg/. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

McGinn, Roderick A. “Lake Winnipeg.” The Canadian Encyclopedia, Historica Canada, 21 Sept. 2021, www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/lake-winnipeg/. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

North/South Consultants. “Literature Review Related to Setting Nutrient Objectives for Lake Winnipeg.” North/South Consultants, 2006.

Sandford, Robert W. Saving Lake Winnipeg. Rocky Mountain Books, 2013.

Schindler, D. W. “The Cumulative Effects of Climate Warming and Other Human Stresses on Canadian Freshwaters in the New Millennium.” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, vol. 58, 2001.

“State of Lake Winnipeg, Second Edition.” Environment and Climate Change Canada, Manitoba Agriculture and Resource Development, Mar. 2020, www.gov.mb.ca/sd/pubs/water/lakes-beaches-rivers/state_lake_wpg_report_tech.pdf. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

Thorstensen, Matt J., et al. “Morphology and Blood Metabolites Reflect Recent Spatial and Temporal Differences among Lake Winnipeg Walleye, Sander vitreus.” Journal of Great Lakes Research, vol. 47, no. 3, 2021, pp. 603–13, doi:10.1016/j.jglr.2020.06.015. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

“Zebra Mussels Multiplying in Lake Winnipeg, Now Found on Shorelines.” Water Supply Association of B.C., 18 Aug. 2019, wsabc.ca/zebra-mussels-multiplying-in-lake-winnipeg-now-found-on-shorelines/. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

Full Article

  • Category: Inland Aquatic Biomes.
  • Geographic Location: North America.
  • Summary: This relatively pristine freshwater habitat is under stress from anthropogenic sources of excess nutrients, invasive species, and climate change.

Lake Winnipeg is the largest lake in the Canadian province of Manitoba, and a valuable source of hydropower, commercial fishing, and recreation for the region. Its name is from the Cree term for muddy waters. The watershed is almost forty times greater than the surface of the lake; it is shaped by environmental forces and human activities in an extensive area spanning Canada and the United States. The water quality and aquatic biodiversity of Lake Winnipeg are threatened by excess nutrients, invasive species, and climate change, while the large size and multiple jurisdictions of the watershed present further challenges for water management and policy decisions.

Among the largest freshwater lakes in the world (tenth in terms of surface area), Lake Winnipeg measures 258 miles (416 kilometers) north to south and spreads across approximately 9,460 square miles (24,500 square kilometers). It is the largest remnant of ancient Lake Agassiz, formed by glacial retreat in North America about 12,000 years ago. Lake Winnipeg consists of a large north basin and a smaller, comparatively shallow south basin; these are separated by a narrow channel that carries water from the south basin northward. Compared with other large lakes, Lake Winnipeg is relatively shallow, with an average depth of 39 feet (12 meters). This contributes to a fairly short water residence time of three to four years for the lake as a whole, and further affects the water temperature, volume, and ecosystem functions.

The Lake Winnipeg watershed is nearly 386,000 square miles (1 million square kilometers), stretching from the Rocky Mountain foothills to within a few miles (kilometers) of Lake Superior and covering parts of four provinces (Manitoba, Ontario, Saskatchewan, and Alberta) and four US states (North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, and Montana). River flow is the most significant source of water to the lake, which is fed by three major river systems: the Saskatchewan River from the west, the Red River from the south, and the Winnipeg River from the southeast. The Winnipeg River contributes nearly half of the total inflow to Lake Winnipeg, followed by the Saskatchewan River (25 percent), the Red River (16 percent), other tributaries, and precipitation. The only outlet from the lake is the Nelson River, flowing northward to Hudson Bay, with evaporation also contributing to water loss.

Biodiversity

Walleye and whitefish are the most commonly fished species in the lake, accounting for the bulk of commercial fishing. Lake Winnipeg was also once the main source of goldeye. Other native fish include sauger, yellow perch, troutperch, burbot, freshwater drum, lake cisco, and emerald shiner. Fish designated as at risk (by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada) include silver chub and shortjaw cisco. The lake supports not only commercial and recreational fishing, but subsistence fishing for the local Indigenous population.

Several introduced species in the lake are having a considerable influence on ecological relationships, by competing with native species for food and other resources. Aquatic invasive animal species known to occur in Lake Winnipeg include the common carp, rainbow smelt, white bass, Asian tapeworm, and a zooplankton species (Bosmina coregoni). Rainbow smelt were the dominant prey fish species in the north basin of the lake, and scientists were investigating their effect on the harvest and production of walleye, an important commercial native species. However, by the 2020s, the population of both the rainbow smelt and the walleye significantly reduced because of uncontrolled fishing, affecting the sustainability of the lake’s ecosystem.

A particularly notable invasive species is the zebra mussel, which made its way to the lake from the Red River watershed by 2013. A boom in zebra mussels in the lake in 2015 had major environmental impacts, with scientists conceding that little could be done to reverse the invasion. The mussels are considered a major disruptor of ecosystems due to their quick breeding and consumption of microorganisms, and also a detriment to recreation due to their sharp shells covering the lakebed. By 2019, the zebra mussel problem had escalated, as the species had made its way to the lake’s shores. In some spots, the mussel’s sharp shells completely covered parts of the shoreline. Another threat was the spiny water flea, which was identified downstream from Pointe du Bois Dam on the Winnipeg River in 2009. Managers remain concerned about these invasive species migrating up- or downstream, as they may further affect ecosystem health and economic activities in Lake Winnipeg.

Human Impact

Lake Winnipeg provides important socioeconomic benefits to the region. It is one of the world’s largest lakes used for hydroelectric regulation and supplies Manitoba Hydro, the Crown Corporation hydroelectric utility, with major portions of its storage and generating capacity. Regulated since 1976, water flows around Lake Winnipeg now create hundreds of millions of dollars’ worth of electrical power each year, with a significant portion of that revenue resulting from exports to other Canadian provinces and the United States.

This aquatic ecosystem also supports the most important commercial fisheries in Manitoba; in 2020s, an estimated 2,000 licensed commercial fisheries operated in Manitoba, with a significant percentage of the fisheries functioning on the lake. Additionally, dozens of communities along the shoreline, as well as populations downstream, rely on the water quality of the lake for drinking water.

Water quality in Lake Winnipeg has deteriorated during the late twentieth century, primarily from excess nutrients loaded into the lake through watershed sources. The catchment is dominated by agricultural use; it supports tens of millions of livestock and millions of people. Monitoring of watershed nutrient sources has revealed that cropland fertilizers carry the largest amounts of phosphorus to the lake through surface runoff and flooding, mainly through the Red River. Human and livestock wastes contribute additional loads.

Phosphorus and nitrogen are the two major nutrients contributing to the increased frequency and intensity of algal blooms that threaten the Lake Winnipeg biome. More than 80 percent of the algae that form blooms in the lake during the ice-free seasons are blue-green algae or cyanobacteria, of particular concern because of their detrimental effect on the ecosystem. Cyanobacteria are a less desirable food source than other algae types for organisms in the lake, leading to species accumulation and dominance. When these algae die and sink down to the bottom of the lake, their decomposition by bacteria consumes oxygen in the water; this reduces the available oxygen necessary for fish and other organisms in the food web. In addition, cyanobacteria have the potential to produce potent toxins that may pose health risks to humans and other animals. These water-quality changes can affect the lake’s ecosystem sustainability, safety for the public, and aesthetic appeal.

According to the 2020 edition of the report “State of Lake Winnipeg,” the lake was highly vulnerable to climate change (in addition to the other related challenges from invasive species, fishing pressures, nitrogen and phosphorus levels in the water, and changing land and water management). With the region warming faster than the global average, the extreme heat events, which were predicted to occur in the twenty-first century and beyond, have started impacting water availability for agriculture, hydroelectric production, and municipal uses, such as water needed to fight forest fires. Global climate models predicted that the south basin’s summer water temperatures could rise 9 degrees F (5 degrees C) by 2085. Research also suggested that the diversity of aquatic species in the lake would decline as water temperature rises. Increases in temperature and water levels could affect the nutrient load in the lake.

Increased temperatures in central Canada will likely exacerbate the establishment of invasive species in Lake Winnipeg from southern regions and favor species that thrive in higher water temperatures. From 1969 to 1990, the algal species composition during warm months shifted from a diverse assemblage to significant dominance of blue-green species with a tolerance for higher temperatures. Earlier spring melt and later freezes would lengthen the duration of the open water season and create warmer water temperatures, which could have detrimental effects for more than twelve coldwater fish species, including the commercial species of whitefish. Temperature-sensitive life cycles of aquatic insects may be sufficiently altered to cause shifts in abundance and species composition that disrupt food web functioning on a large scale.

In 2003, the Manitoba provincial government announced the Lake Winnipeg Action Plan, which aims to reduce phosphorus and nitrogen loading to Lake Winnipeg through several strategies. The plan strives to protect riparian growth, address fertilizer applications, introduce new sewage and septic regulations, reduce shoreline erosion, and engage other jurisdictions on nutrient management within the watershed. The Lake Winnipeg Stewardship Board was also initiated under this plan to identify necessary actions and make recommendations for reducing phosphorus and nitrogen loads to pre-1970 levels. The board members represented a variety of interests, including fishing, agriculture, urban land use, First Nations; federal, provincial, and municipal government, and nongovernmental organizations.

Scientific research has also been advanced through intensive federal, provincial, collaborative, and independent research and monitoring programs. In 2008, Environment Canada and Manitoba Water Stewardship partnered in the Lake Winnipeg Basin Initiative, an effort to summarize accumulated scientific knowledge of the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the lake and its basin. The plan initially allocated approximately $18 million to fund more than forty projects throughout the basin. Phase II of the plan began in 2012 with $18 million in funding to encourage scientists and the public to take a more active role in protecting the lake. In 2010, Manitoba and the federal government signed a memorandum agreeing to work together for the environmental health of Lake Winnipeg, and the agreement was extended several times. In 2024, the government of Manitoba set formal nutrient targets for Manitoba’s lakes and rivers, including Lake Winnipeg. These regulations were intended to increase water quality. The federal government also established the Canada Water Agency, headquartered in Winnipeg, to coordinate freshwater protection efforts across Canada, including work related to Lake Winnipeg. In 2025, the Canada Water Agency announced $1.6 million in funding for ten projects to support research, wetland restoration, and nutrient-reduction efforts in the Lake Winnipeg Basin.


Bibliography

“Background: Evaluation of the Lake Winnipeg Basin Initiative.” Canada.ca, Government of Canada, n.d., www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/corporate/transparency/priorities-management/evaluations/evaluation-lake-winnipeg-basin-initiative/background.html. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

“Canada Water Agency Advances Efforts to Restore and Protect Lake Winnipeg.” Canada.ca, Canada Water Agency, 18 Oct. 2025, www.canada.ca/en/canada-water-agency/news/2025/10/canada-water-agency-advances-efforts-to-restore-and-protect-lake-winnipeg.html. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

Kroft, Emily. “The Case of Eco-Certification in Manitoba’s Commercial Fisheries: Path Forward for Manitoba Fishers.” International Institute for Sustainable Development, Aug. 2024, www.iisd.org/system/files/2024-08/eco-certification-manitoba-commercial-fisheries.pdf. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

“Lake Winnipeg Biome.” Climate Change Connection, 28 Dec. 2015, climatechangeconnection.org/impacts/lake-winnipeg-impacts/lake-winnipeg-biome/. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

“Lake Winnipeg.” Living Lakes, livinglakes.org/lake-winnipeg/. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

“Lake Winnipeg.” Manitoba, www.gov.mb.ca/sd/water/lakes-beaches-rivers/lake-winnipeg.html#. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

“Manitoba Government Taking Action to Protect Lake Winnipeg.” Manitoba, 27 Aug. 2024, news.gov.mb.ca/news/index.html?item=64777. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

“Manitoba Memorandum of Understanding on a Nature Agreement.” Government of Canada, 7 Mar. 2025, www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/integrated-nature-initiatives/nature-agreements/canada-manitoba-mou-on-nature-agreement.html. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

Mann, Mark. “Anger and Indifference on Lake Winnipeg.” The Walrus, 4 June 2020, thewalrus.ca/anger-and-indifference-on-lake-winnipeg/. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

McGinn, Roderick A. “Lake Winnipeg.” The Canadian Encyclopedia, Historica Canada, 21 Sept. 2021, www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/lake-winnipeg/. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

North/South Consultants. “Literature Review Related to Setting Nutrient Objectives for Lake Winnipeg.” North/South Consultants, 2006.

Sandford, Robert W. Saving Lake Winnipeg. Rocky Mountain Books, 2013.

Schindler, D. W. “The Cumulative Effects of Climate Warming and Other Human Stresses on Canadian Freshwaters in the New Millennium.” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, vol. 58, 2001.

“State of Lake Winnipeg, Second Edition.” Environment and Climate Change Canada, Manitoba Agriculture and Resource Development, Mar. 2020, www.gov.mb.ca/sd/pubs/water/lakes-beaches-rivers/state_lake_wpg_report_tech.pdf. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

Thorstensen, Matt J., et al. “Morphology and Blood Metabolites Reflect Recent Spatial and Temporal Differences among Lake Winnipeg Walleye, Sander vitreus.” Journal of Great Lakes Research, vol. 47, no. 3, 2021, pp. 603–13, doi:10.1016/j.jglr.2020.06.015. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

“Zebra Mussels Multiplying in Lake Winnipeg, Now Found on Shorelines.” Water Supply Association of B.C., 18 Aug. 2019, wsabc.ca/zebra-mussels-multiplying-in-lake-winnipeg-now-found-on-shorelines/. Accessed 11 Mar. 2026.

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