RESEARCH STARTER

Netherlands and greenhouse gas emissions

The Netherlands has a complex relationship with greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, heavily influenced by its historical context and environmental challenges. As a low-lying country with about 27 percent of its land below sea level, the threat of rising sea levels and flooding is a significant concern. The Netherlands' industrial activities, including petroleum refining and intensive agriculture, contribute notably to GHG emissions. Despite these challenges, the country has made concerted efforts to reduce emissions, achieving a 9.1 percent decrease from 1990 levels by 2012, which exceeded its Kyoto Protocol target.

The Netherlands is also a proactive participant in international climate agreements, ratifying the Paris Agreement and setting ambitious goals to cut GHG emissions by 95 percent by 2050. Flood control remains a priority, leading to major projects aimed at enhancing the country's defenses against climate-related threats. This includes raising dikes and developing technology for better flood monitoring and response. Overall, the Netherlands is navigating the dual pressures of economic activity and climate responsibility, striving for sustainability while managing the inherent risks of its geography.

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Historical and Political Context

By the seventeenth century, the Netherlands was playing a major role in the world’s economy. The creation of the Dutch East India Company established the country as one of the major seafaring and trading powers. The mercantile class became extremely influential in all aspects of the country’s life. The Netherlands’ major trade rival was England and the competition between the countries led to the Dutch Wars, which were resolved in 1667 by the Treaty of Breda. England recognized the Netherlands’ right to the Dutch East Indies. During this period, the Netherlands’ capital city of Amsterdam became the site of the first stock exchange and was recognized as the wealthiest trading city at the time. In 1652, the Netherlands had become a republic under Jan de Witt. In 1672, the French invaded the country and killed de Witt. This marked the beginning of a decline in the economic prosperity of the country, which lasted throughout the eighteenth century. From 1795 to 1815, the Netherlands was under French control as part of Napoleon’s Empire.

The Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century did not bring about rapid changes in the Netherlands, because the country relied heavily on waterways for transportation and on wind power for energy. Until World War II, the Netherlands maintained neutrality and independence from its neighboring countries, which adversely affected its economic prosperity. After the war, the country made a dramatic change in policy and began interacting with its neighbors; this new policy brought about renewed economic prosperity. The Netherlands became an important founding member of major international organizations, including the Benelux, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and the European Coal and Steel Community. As one of the fifteen founding members of the European Union, the Netherlands plays an important role in Europe’s economy and welfare.

Impact of Dutch Policies on Climate Change

Sea level, rising tides, and the potential of flooding have always been of major concern to the Netherlands since approximately 26 percent of its land lies below sea level, and 29 percent is vulnerable to river floods. Throughout its history, the country has intervened to protect its land and inhabitants from coastal encroachment and from flooding caused by overflowing rivers and rising sea levels. The industrialization of the Netherlands has adversely affected the country’s situation. With the exception of the natural gas fields near Sloctern, the country has few natural resources, and the economy depends on manufacturing and processing for much of its wealth. Petroleum refining, food processing, and chemical processing, along with the manufacture of electrical machinery, all increase greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This adds to global warming, which may raise sea levels and increase erratic weather patterns that may contribute to the overflow of rivers and flooding. This situation is worsened by the Netherlands’ use of intensive agriculture and horticulture, which produce more GHGs.

The coastline of the Netherlands has undergone considerable changes over the centuries. In 1134, a severe storm created the archipelago of Zeeland. In 1421, the Saint Elizabeth flood caused serious damage to the Netherlands. To combat these problems, the Dutch built polders and dikes to control the water levels and prevent disasters. There are three different kinds of polders, which are tracts of lowlands enclosed by dikes. The first is land reclaimed from a lake or the sea, the second is an area prone to flooding that is protected from the sea by dikes, and the third is a drained marsh separated from the surrounding water by dikes. Windmills are used to pump the excess water. Water bodies or home councils, which are groups independent of any government control, supervise the maintenance of the flood prevention systems.

In 1953, the Netherlands experienced one of its worst floods. The country began a series of projects called the Delta Works (Deltawerken), which raised 3,000 kilometers (1,865 miles) of outer sea dikes and 10,000 kilometers (6,210 miles) of canal and river dikes to a flood-prevention level and closed off the Zeeland sea estuaries. The final Delta Works project concluded in 1997, but maintenance and upgrades continued in the twenty-first century.

The Dutch Supreme Court's landmark 2019 ruling in Urgenda upheld lower court rulings requiring the government to reduce GHG emissions by 25 percent compared to 1990 levels by 2020. The ruling stems from a case that began in 2013, when the environmental organization Urgenda Foundation sued the government for subjecting citizens to dangerous climate change impacts by failing to act. Before the Court's final ruling, the Hague District Court (2015) and Court of Appeal (2018) also ruled in favor of Urgenda, citing violations of Articles 2 and 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights.

In 2019, the government established the Dutch Climate Act (Klimaatwet) as a framework for climate policies. The plan included requirements for updates every five years, annual reports detailing progress, and reviews for the achievability of existing plans. Following the 2023 revision and update, the act's key goals and targets included reducing GHG emissions by 55 percent by 2030 and by 90 percent by 2040. Additionally, the plan included goals to achieve climate neutrality by 2050 and to achieve a carbon-free electricity sector by 2035.

Netherlands as a GHG Emitter

As a member of the European Union, the Netherlands ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2002. According to data from the European Environment Agency, the Netherlands emitted 213 million metric tons of greenhouse gases in the base year 1990. By 2006, the Netherlands had reduced its emissions to 207.5 million metric tons, ranking seventh among the EU27 and sixth among the EU15 as an emitter of GHGs. The burden-sharing target of the Netherlands under the Kyoto Protocol was -6 percent, to an annual average of 200.3 million metric tons of emissions between 2008 and 2012. From 2002 to 2006, the Netherlands produced an average of 213.6 million metric tons of GHG emissions, representing an increase of 0.3 percent. The country’s 2006 emissions, at 207.5 million metric tons, were 3 percent below its base year emissions but were still above its treaty target.

In the 2000s and 2010s, policies continued in energy supply and use, as well as in transport and agriculture. By 2012, the Netherlands had reached its target goal, producing 195.2 million metric tons of GHG emissions, a decrease of 9.1 percent from 1990. GHG emissions remained around 195 million metric tons between 2012 and 2016. In 2017, the Netherlands ratified the Paris Agreement, which intensified the policies about limiting GHG emissions. The following year, it was announced that the Netherlands had drafted climate laws with the goal of reducing GHG emissions by 95 percent by 2050. However, goals and climate change agreements have changed numerous times.

Between 2000 and 2023, the Netherlands reduced its total carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion by 31 percent. By 2024, 36 percent of the nation's electricity was generated from natural gas, and 27 percent from wind. Its electricity generation from renewable sources (wind turbines, solar panels, and hydroelectric dams) increased by 1103 percent between 2000 and 2022, enabling energy exports to increase by 502 percent. This shift to renewables (over 60 percent of which was from wind) avoided significant GHG emissions while meeting the nation's energy demand.

Summary and Foresight

The Netherlands exceeded its target of 6 percent below 1990 levels by 2012 by implementing carbon sink activities and using Kyoto mechanisms, specifically by providing funds for projects that reduce GHG emissions in other countries under the clean development mechanism.

In view of the prospects of continued global warming, the Netherlands is embarking upon a major flood-control project. Projected to continue through 2100, the project is estimated to cost approximately 1 billion Euros per year. At the core of the project is the planned raising of dikes and reinforcing of storm barriers. Many approaches are being considered, from amelioration of the protection from the sea at major ports, especially Rotterdam, to extending the coastline of the North Sea as much as 1 kilometer (0.6 miles) by dumping millions of metric tons of sand into the ocean.

The Netherlands began using technology to protect the country from floods in 2013, launching the Digital Delta initiative. The Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment collaborated with the Delft University of Technology, the Deltares Science Institute, and local water authorities to improve real-time monitoring of water systems and enhance emergency preparedness with data-driven decision support. Experts developed sensor-based systems to assess dike stability and to support and supplement inspections conducted by water authorities. The Netherlands has also collaborated with International Business Machines (IBM) to develop software to analyze weather, provide early warnings of flood threats, and support evacuation planning.

Key Facts

  • Population: 17,772,378 (2024 estimate)
  • Area: 41,543 square kilometers
  • Gross domestic product (GDP): $1.276 trillion (purchasing power parity, 2024 estimate)
  • Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in millions of metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e): 213 in 1990; 174 in 1999; 217 in 2004; 143 in 2023
  • Kyoto Protocol status: Ratified 2002
  • Paris Agreement status: Entered into force in 2016

Bibliography

Abboud, Leila. “Before the Deluge.” The Wall Street Journal, 9 Mar. 2009, www.wsj.com/articles/SB123620725724333601. Accessed 13 Dec. 2025.

"Decrease in Greenhouse Gas Emissions Levelled Off in 2024 ." Central Vureau Voor de Statistiek, 12 Mar. 2025, www.cbs.nl/en-gb/news/2025/11/decrease-in-greenhouse-gas-emissions-levelled-off-in-2024. Accessed 13 Dec. 2025.

"EEA Greenhouse Gases—Data Viewer." European Environment Agency, 16 May 2025, www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/maps-and-charts/greenhouse-gases-viewer-data-viewers. Accessed 10 Dec. 2025.

"Evacuation Tool Helps the Netherlands Prepare Effectively for Disasters." Delft University of Technology, 20 Nov. 2025, www.tudelft.nl/en/2025/tu-delft/evacuation-tool-helps-the-netherlands-prepare-effectively-for-disasters. Accessed 10 Dec. 2025.

Hoeksema, Robert J. Designed for Dry Feet: Flood Protection and Land Reclamation in the Netherlands. American Society of Civil Engineers, 2006.

"Mitigating Climate Change." Government of the Netherlands, www.government.nl/topics/climate-change/mitigating-climate-change. Accessed 10 Dec. 2025.

"Netherlands – Climate Performance Ranking 2025." Climate Change Performance Index, 2025, ccpi.org/country/nld. Accessed 10 Dec. 2025.

"The Netherlands." International Energy Agency, www.iea.org/countries/the-netherlands. Accessed 10 Dec. 2025.

"Total Greenhouse Gas Emissions (without LULUCF)." European Environment Agency, 28 Sept. 2025, www.eea.europa.eu/en/europe-environment-2025/countries/netherlands/total-greenhouse-gas-emissions. Accessed 10 Dec. 2025.

Full Article

Historical and Political Context

By the seventeenth century, the Netherlands was playing a major role in the world’s economy. The creation of the Dutch East India Company established the country as one of the major seafaring and trading powers. The mercantile class became extremely influential in all aspects of the country’s life. The Netherlands’ major trade rival was England and the competition between the countries led to the Dutch Wars, which were resolved in 1667 by the Treaty of Breda. England recognized the Netherlands’ right to the Dutch East Indies. During this period, the Netherlands’ capital city of Amsterdam became the site of the first stock exchange and was recognized as the wealthiest trading city at the time. In 1652, the Netherlands had become a republic under Jan de Witt. In 1672, the French invaded the country and killed de Witt. This marked the beginning of a decline in the economic prosperity of the country, which lasted throughout the eighteenth century. From 1795 to 1815, the Netherlands was under French control as part of Napoleon’s Empire.

The Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century did not bring about rapid changes in the Netherlands, because the country relied heavily on waterways for transportation and on wind power for energy. Until World War II, the Netherlands maintained neutrality and independence from its neighboring countries, which adversely affected its economic prosperity. After the war, the country made a dramatic change in policy and began interacting with its neighbors; this new policy brought about renewed economic prosperity. The Netherlands became an important founding member of major international organizations, including the Benelux, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and the European Coal and Steel Community. As one of the fifteen founding members of the European Union, the Netherlands plays an important role in Europe’s economy and welfare.

Impact of Dutch Policies on Climate Change

Sea level, rising tides, and the potential of flooding have always been of major concern to the Netherlands since approximately 26 percent of its land lies below sea level, and 29 percent is vulnerable to river floods. Throughout its history, the country has intervened to protect its land and inhabitants from coastal encroachment and from flooding caused by overflowing rivers and rising sea levels. The industrialization of the Netherlands has adversely affected the country’s situation. With the exception of the natural gas fields near Sloctern, the country has few natural resources, and the economy depends on manufacturing and processing for much of its wealth. Petroleum refining, food processing, and chemical processing, along with the manufacture of electrical machinery, all increase greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This adds to global warming, which may raise sea levels and increase erratic weather patterns that may contribute to the overflow of rivers and flooding. This situation is worsened by the Netherlands’ use of intensive agriculture and horticulture, which produce more GHGs.

The coastline of the Netherlands has undergone considerable changes over the centuries. In 1134, a severe storm created the archipelago of Zeeland. In 1421, the Saint Elizabeth flood caused serious damage to the Netherlands. To combat these problems, the Dutch built polders and dikes to control the water levels and prevent disasters. There are three different kinds of polders, which are tracts of lowlands enclosed by dikes. The first is land reclaimed from a lake or the sea, the second is an area prone to flooding that is protected from the sea by dikes, and the third is a drained marsh separated from the surrounding water by dikes. Windmills are used to pump the excess water. Water bodies or home councils, which are groups independent of any government control, supervise the maintenance of the flood prevention systems.

In 1953, the Netherlands experienced one of its worst floods. The country began a series of projects called the Delta Works (Deltawerken), which raised 3,000 kilometers (1,865 miles) of outer sea dikes and 10,000 kilometers (6,210 miles) of canal and river dikes to a flood-prevention level and closed off the Zeeland sea estuaries. The final Delta Works project concluded in 1997, but maintenance and upgrades continued in the twenty-first century.

The Dutch Supreme Court's landmark 2019 ruling in Urgenda upheld lower court rulings requiring the government to reduce GHG emissions by 25 percent compared to 1990 levels by 2020. The ruling stems from a case that began in 2013, when the environmental organization Urgenda Foundation sued the government for subjecting citizens to dangerous climate change impacts by failing to act. Before the Court's final ruling, the Hague District Court (2015) and Court of Appeal (2018) also ruled in favor of Urgenda, citing violations of Articles 2 and 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights.

In 2019, the government established the Dutch Climate Act (Klimaatwet) as a framework for climate policies. The plan included requirements for updates every five years, annual reports detailing progress, and reviews for the achievability of existing plans. Following the 2023 revision and update, the act's key goals and targets included reducing GHG emissions by 55 percent by 2030 and by 90 percent by 2040. Additionally, the plan included goals to achieve climate neutrality by 2050 and to achieve a carbon-free electricity sector by 2035.

Netherlands as a GHG Emitter

As a member of the European Union, the Netherlands ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2002. According to data from the European Environment Agency, the Netherlands emitted 213 million metric tons of greenhouse gases in the base year 1990. By 2006, the Netherlands had reduced its emissions to 207.5 million metric tons, ranking seventh among the EU27 and sixth among the EU15 as an emitter of GHGs. The burden-sharing target of the Netherlands under the Kyoto Protocol was -6 percent, to an annual average of 200.3 million metric tons of emissions between 2008 and 2012. From 2002 to 2006, the Netherlands produced an average of 213.6 million metric tons of GHG emissions, representing an increase of 0.3 percent. The country’s 2006 emissions, at 207.5 million metric tons, were 3 percent below its base year emissions but were still above its treaty target.

In the 2000s and 2010s, policies continued in energy supply and use, as well as in transport and agriculture. By 2012, the Netherlands had reached its target goal, producing 195.2 million metric tons of GHG emissions, a decrease of 9.1 percent from 1990. GHG emissions remained around 195 million metric tons between 2012 and 2016. In 2017, the Netherlands ratified the Paris Agreement, which intensified the policies about limiting GHG emissions. The following year, it was announced that the Netherlands had drafted climate laws with the goal of reducing GHG emissions by 95 percent by 2050. However, goals and climate change agreements have changed numerous times.

Between 2000 and 2023, the Netherlands reduced its total carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion by 31 percent. By 2024, 36 percent of the nation's electricity was generated from natural gas, and 27 percent from wind. Its electricity generation from renewable sources (wind turbines, solar panels, and hydroelectric dams) increased by 1103 percent between 2000 and 2022, enabling energy exports to increase by 502 percent. This shift to renewables (over 60 percent of which was from wind) avoided significant GHG emissions while meeting the nation's energy demand.

Summary and Foresight

The Netherlands exceeded its target of 6 percent below 1990 levels by 2012 by implementing carbon sink activities and using Kyoto mechanisms, specifically by providing funds for projects that reduce GHG emissions in other countries under the clean development mechanism.

In view of the prospects of continued global warming, the Netherlands is embarking upon a major flood-control project. Projected to continue through 2100, the project is estimated to cost approximately 1 billion Euros per year. At the core of the project is the planned raising of dikes and reinforcing of storm barriers. Many approaches are being considered, from amelioration of the protection from the sea at major ports, especially Rotterdam, to extending the coastline of the North Sea as much as 1 kilometer (0.6 miles) by dumping millions of metric tons of sand into the ocean.

The Netherlands began using technology to protect the country from floods in 2013, launching the Digital Delta initiative. The Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment collaborated with the Delft University of Technology, the Deltares Science Institute, and local water authorities to improve real-time monitoring of water systems and enhance emergency preparedness with data-driven decision support. Experts developed sensor-based systems to assess dike stability and to support and supplement inspections conducted by water authorities. The Netherlands has also collaborated with International Business Machines (IBM) to develop software to analyze weather, provide early warnings of flood threats, and support evacuation planning.

Key Facts

  • Population: 17,772,378 (2024 estimate)
  • Area: 41,543 square kilometers
  • Gross domestic product (GDP): $1.276 trillion (purchasing power parity, 2024 estimate)
  • Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in millions of metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e): 213 in 1990; 174 in 1999; 217 in 2004; 143 in 2023
  • Kyoto Protocol status: Ratified 2002
  • Paris Agreement status: Entered into force in 2016

Bibliography

Abboud, Leila. “Before the Deluge.” The Wall Street Journal, 9 Mar. 2009, www.wsj.com/articles/SB123620725724333601. Accessed 13 Dec. 2025.

"Decrease in Greenhouse Gas Emissions Levelled Off in 2024 ." Central Vureau Voor de Statistiek, 12 Mar. 2025, www.cbs.nl/en-gb/news/2025/11/decrease-in-greenhouse-gas-emissions-levelled-off-in-2024. Accessed 13 Dec. 2025.

"EEA Greenhouse Gases—Data Viewer." European Environment Agency, 16 May 2025, www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/maps-and-charts/greenhouse-gases-viewer-data-viewers. Accessed 10 Dec. 2025.

"Evacuation Tool Helps the Netherlands Prepare Effectively for Disasters." Delft University of Technology, 20 Nov. 2025, www.tudelft.nl/en/2025/tu-delft/evacuation-tool-helps-the-netherlands-prepare-effectively-for-disasters. Accessed 10 Dec. 2025.

Hoeksema, Robert J. Designed for Dry Feet: Flood Protection and Land Reclamation in the Netherlands. American Society of Civil Engineers, 2006.

"Mitigating Climate Change." Government of the Netherlands, www.government.nl/topics/climate-change/mitigating-climate-change. Accessed 10 Dec. 2025.

"Netherlands – Climate Performance Ranking 2025." Climate Change Performance Index, 2025, ccpi.org/country/nld. Accessed 10 Dec. 2025.

"The Netherlands." International Energy Agency, www.iea.org/countries/the-netherlands. Accessed 10 Dec. 2025.

"Total Greenhouse Gas Emissions (without LULUCF)." European Environment Agency, 28 Sept. 2025, www.eea.europa.eu/en/europe-environment-2025/countries/netherlands/total-greenhouse-gas-emissions. Accessed 10 Dec. 2025.

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