Myanmar

The Republic of the Union of Myanmar, also known as the Union of Burma, is a Southeast Asian country that was ruled by a military dictatorship from 1988 until 2011. The name Myanmar is not recognized by either the United States or the United Kingdom, the country’s former colonial ruler, although the name has received official recognition by the United Nations.

An independent kingdom in ancient times, Myanmar was a British colony from the late nineteenth century until gaining independence in 1948. Since the end of the military junta, tourism increased, and visitors came to enjoy the country's beautiful landscapes and ancient Buddhist temples. A new military junta under Chairman Min Aung Hlaing was established following a successful coup that overthrew Myanmar's democratic government in 2021, which then led to an outbreak of fighting upon the formation of the People's Defence Force (the armed forces of the National Unity Government, a government in exile consisting of the democratically elected representatives overthrown in the coup), which has fiercely resisted Min Aung Hlaing's regime. Combat between different groups in Myanmar continued into the mid-2020s; meanwhile, the military government continued to attract criticism over human rights conditions in Myanmar and genocidal treatment of the Rohingya people.

Note: unless otherwise indicated, statistical data in this article is sourced from the CIA World Factbook, as cited in the bibliography.

People and Culture

Population: The population of Myanmar is relatively young, with an median age of 30.8 years, and nearly 24.4 percent of the population under the age of fifteen (2024 estimates).

The majority of the population is ethnically Bamar (or Burman), representing 68 percent of the population. The major ethnic minorities are the Shan people, who make up about 9 percent of the population, and the Karen people, who make up about 7 percent. There are also sizeable minorities of Rakhine (4 percent), Chinese (3 percent), Indian (2 percent), and Mon (2 percent) peoples. Many smaller groups are present as well; the Myanmar government recognizes 135 Indigenous ethnic groups.

Buddhism is the predominant religion of Myanmar, practiced by about 88 percent of the population at the time of the 2014 census. There are also small minorities of Christians, Muslims, Hindus, adherents of Chinese religions, animists, and other religious groups. Faith and ethnicity are closely tied in Myanmar.

The capital was formerly Yangon, known until the late 1980s as Rangoon, with a population of 5.61 million in 2023. Located in the Yangon River delta, the city served as the colonial capital of Burma during the British era. Mandalay, the ancient royal capital to the north, is the second-largest city, with a population of about 1.53 million, and is located on the Irrawaddy River (2023 estimates). Naypyidaw, which became the country's capital in 2005, is the country's third-largest city, with a population much smaller than Yangon or Mandalay.

As the official language, Burmese is the first language of more than half the population and a second language for the country's minority ethnic groups. Part of the Tibeto-Burman language group (the non-Sinitic Sino-Tibetan languages), it is distantly related to other Asian languages, including Sherpa and the various dialects of Tibetan, and more distantly related to the Chinese (Sinitic) languages. Burmese is written using the distinctive Burmese script, based on either the Mon script or the Pyu script, both of which were derived from Brahmi. There are two registers in Burmese: the "high" variety, used in newspapers and formal writing or speeches, and the "low" variety, used in casual speech and informal writing. English, the language of the British colonial rulers, is widely spoken as a second language.

Indigenous People: The Mon people, related to the Vietnamese and Cambodians, were among the earliest groups to establish a civilization in what is now Myanmar, probably settling in the region around 1500 BCE. Though once the dominant group, they now represent only about 2 percent of the population. The Pyu people were another early group to settle the region. The Burmese, now the dominant ethnic group, settled in Myanmar in the ninth century CE.

The central government's wars against various ethnic groups produced hundreds of thousands of refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs). Some of these groups raised environmental concerns, such as the government's development of hydroelectric dams, while others opposed the military-led government. Following the selection of former prime minister of Thein Sein as president in 2011, the government drafted a nationwide ceasefire with the armed ethnic groups and instituted several reforms, though government oppression of religious and ethnic minorities remained a major issue in the country well into the 2020s.

Education: Myanmar's educational system is relatively weak, particularly in primary education. The literacy rate was estimated at 93.5 percent of the adult population in 2020. The majority of Burmese students completed primary school, but gross enrollment dropped significantly in secondary school. Buddhist monasteries, which are found in villages throughout the country, play an important role in continuing education, or lifetime learning.

Education is administered by the state Ministry of Education, in support of the military government's social objectives, which include national morale, patriotism, and support of the nation's cultural heritage and character. The country's oldest university is the University of Yangon (formerly Rangoon University), founded in 1878 by the British colonial rulers as Rangoon College. The military government instituted strict censorship of academic research.

Health Care: Myanmar suffers from severe health problems, brought about in part by HIV/AIDS and other serious diseases, such as tuberculosis, hepatitis A, typhoid, malaria, dengue fever, Japanese encephalitis, and rabies. In 2019, an estimated 0.6 percent of the adult population were living with HIV/AIDS.

Life expectancy is low, estimated at 70.3 years for the total population (2024 estimates). Infant mortality is also high, at 30.8 deaths per 1,000 live births (2025 estimates). Public health is poor, especially in rural areas.

Food: Myanmar cuisine represents a mixture of many ethnic groups, especially Chinese, Thai, and Indian. Among the dominant Burmese, popular foods include rice and bamboo shoots. Other staples are chicken and seafood, often flavored with the dried shrimp paste known as ngapi.

Many dishes eaten in Myanmar are considered spicy; curry, lemongrass, and coconut milk are common ingredients in many dishes. Mohinga, considered one of the country's "national dishes," is a soup of rice noodles and fish.

Arts & Entertainment: Myanmar has a long and distinctive cultural tradition, influenced strongly by neighboring India and China. Buddhism has been another important cultural influence, and many ancient pagodas or temples remain from the precolonial era. One of the most prominent is the Mahamuri Pagoda in Mandalay.

Literature suffered due to the military government's imposition of strict censorship. Satirist, poet, and playwright Thakin Kodaw Hmaing (also known as U Lun) was one of the most important figures in the country's literary tradition. Drama, especially puppetry, is a popular art form. Puppet shows are known as yokethe pwe.

The dictatorship refused to allow access to many websites, but restrictions on internet access were eased beginning in 2011.

Traditional Burmese garments include lungyis or sarongs for both sexes, worn with a colorful shirt.

Holidays: Myanmar's main holiday is Independence Day (January 4), celebrating the country's independence from Great Britain. Another holiday is Union Day (February 12), celebrating the 1947 Panglong Agreement.

Most of the population is Buddhist, so Buddhist holidays are an important part of the calendar. Among the most important holidays is the Thingyan Festival, held in mid-April to celebrate the Buddhist New Year (also celebrated as the national new year). Other festivals, such as the Kason Festival, celebrate events in the life of Buddha. Other holidays such as the Islamic holy day of Eid and the Hindu celebration Dipavali are also observed.

Environment and Geography

Topography: Much of Myanmar is covered by mountains and high hills, particularly along the borders. Southeast Asia's highest peak and Myanmar's highest point is Gamlang Razi, which rises 5,870 meters (19,258 feet) above sea level, on the border with Tibet.

Myanmar's water borders include the Bay of Bengal to the west and the Andaman Sea to the south. On land, the country is bordered by Bangladesh and India to the west, by Thailand and Laos to the east, and by China to the north.

Most of the population is found in the central floodplain, dominated by the Irrawaddy (or Ayeyarwady) River. The other major rivers are the Salween, along the eastern border, and the Sittang, located between the Salween and the Ayeyarwaddy. Approximately half of the country is forested.

Natural Resources: Myanmar has rich energy resources, particularly petroleum, coal, and natural gas. The government is working to develop hydropower by building dams. Important minerals include tin, antimony, copper, and tungsten. The rapid industrialization has caused many environmental problems, including deforestation, erosion, and pollution.

Plants & Animals: Myanmar is heavily forested, though deforestation is an ongoing concern. The northern parts of the country, in the foothills of the mountains, are covered with pine trees. However, deforestation has sharply reduced the number of bird and mammal species found in Myanmar such as the Asiatic black bear and the barking deer.

The central flood plain of the Irrawaddy Delta has large rainforests as well as freshwater swamps. Typical tree species found in this area include evergreens and mangroves. Human encroachment and hunting have almost eliminated the large mammals of the flood plain, including elephants, leopards, and tigers.

Small mammals such as tapirs and wild boars still exist in fairly sizeable numbers in the forests. Many water birds, including several varieties of plover and heron, live in the rainforests and mangrove forests.

Climate: Climate change has intensified weather extremes across Myanmar, contributing to more frequent droughts, heavier rainfall, and stronger storms. Shifting rainfall patterns and rising temperatures have increased pressure on agriculture and water resources, particularly in vulnerable regions.

Traditionally, Myanmar experiences three main seasons: winter, summer, and the rainy season. Summer generally lasts from March to May and is characterized by hot, humid conditions. Temperatures during this period can reach up to 38 degrees Celsius (100 degrees Fahrenheit). Winter runs from November to February and is typically milder, with lower rainfall.

As in much of Southeast Asia, the majority of rainfall comes from powerful tropical winds known as monsoons. The rainy season extends from May to October and can deliver up to 5,000 millimeters (200 inches) of rain in some areas. These winds also frequently generate cyclones.

Despite heavy seasonal rainfall, droughts remains a recurring challenge. The central plains region, often referred to as the “dry zone,” receives an average of about 760 millimeters (30 inches) of rain annually.

Economy

Myanmar's population is generally poor, despite rich natural resources and growing amounts of foreign investment in the country's energy sector, textiles industry, and information technology. Following the establishment of the civilian government in 2011, the country instituted major reforms to accelerate growth. The gross domestic product (GDP), based on purchasing power parity (PPP), grew from around US$183 billion, or about US$3,500 per capita, in 2010 to US$287.559 billion, or US$5,300 per capita, in 2024.

However, widespread poverty remains a pressing issue, especially in rural parts of the country. This was later exacerbated by the military coup of 2021. Myanmar's HDI value for 2023 was 0.609—which put the country in the Medium human development category—positioning it at 150 out of 193 countries and territories which measures quality-of-life indicators.

Industry: Myanmar's major industries include agricultural processing; wood and wood products; mining; minerals extraction, construction materials, and the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, and garments. Myanmar has generally good trading relations with its neighbors, including China, Thailand, and Singapore.

There is a sizeable black market in Myanmar, which makes it difficult to gauge the actual size of the country's economy. The opium trade is one of the largest industries; in the twenty-first century Myanmar has been the world's second or third largest producer of the illegal narcotic, although production has been declining. The estimated opium production in 2019 was 508 metric tons, down from 690 metric tons in 2012.

Agriculture: Despite efforts at industrialization, Myanmar's economy is still heavily agricultural. Agriculture accounted for a relatively small portion of GDP but employed a large share of Myanmar's workforce by the early 2020s. Because of the mountains and heavy forestation, only about a fifth of the land is cultivated.

The major food crop is rice, but beans, sesame, groundnuts, and sugarcane are also grown. Fishing and timbering are also important activities.

Tourism: Myanmar has gradually opened to international tourism despite ongoing concerns about its human rights record. Cruise travel to the country has been especially popular. International arrivals peaked at around 4.3 million before a sharp decline during the COVID-19 pandemic. Visitor numbers later began to recover but have remained well below pre-pandemic levels, according to official figures.

Government

Until the early nineteenth century, Myanmar (then Burma) was an independent kingdom, though at times under the influence of surrounding empires such as China. Burma came under British influence in the 1820s, after losing a war against British forces in India. In 1886, Britain formally annexed Burma, which was ruled as part of India until 1937, when it became a separate colony. Myanmar became independent in 1948 as the Union of Burma, leaving the British Commonwealth and establishing a democratic government.

Burma faced great political and economic instability during the early years of independence and eventually came under the control of General Ne Win, who ruled the country in one form or another from 1962, when he orchestrated a military coup to take power, until 1988, when he was overthrown by another military coup. The junta leaders established a military government, initially known as the State Law and Order Council (SLORC) and officially changed the country's name to Myanmar. In 1997, the government was renamed the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC). The junta refused to accept the results of the 1990 multiparty elections, which gave the victory to Aung San Suu Kyi's National League for Democracy (NLD), and maintained power. Aung San Suu Kyi was placed under house arrest from 1989 to 1995, 2000 to 2002, and 2003 to 2010; she was subsequently elected to parliament in 2012 and later served as the chair of the Committee for Rule of Law and Tranquility. The junta had an extremely poor international reputation due to its strict repression of any political opposition, alleged human rights abuses, and corruption.

In 2010, Myanmar held its first parliamentary elections in twenty years. The elections, which were boycotted by the NLD and considered flawed by many in Myanmar and around the world, produced an overwhelming victory for the ruling Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP). The party elected retired general Thein Sein, who had been prime minister under the junta, as president; most of Thein Sein's appointees were also former or current members of the military. Nevertheless, the new government implemented a number of reforms, including loosening censorship and removing restrictions on freedom of association.

Despite these initial moves toward democracy, the government of Myanmar came under increasing international criticism because of its treatment of the minority Rohingya Muslims in the western Rakhine State. Low-level Rohingya militant activity was met in 2016 with overwhelming military force, and between 2017 and late 2020, nearly one million Rohingya fled across the border to refugee camps in Bangladesh. The Myanmar government, including Aung San Suu Kyi herself, refused to acknowledge what the United Nations described as ethnic cleansing and even genocide.

The country's next parliamentary elections, held in November 2015, were widely considered more credible, and resulted in victory for the NLD. Because Aung San Suu Kyi was constitutionally barred from becoming president due to her late husband and her children being British citizens, the NLD elected her aide and longtime friend Htin Kyaw instead. The country's first truly civilian government since the 1962 coup was sworn in on March 30, 2016. On April 6, the new post of state counsellor, akin to a prime minister, was created following approval by the legislature, and Aung San Suu Kyi was appointed to the position. She was also given the roles of minister of foreign affairs and minister for the president's office. Htin Kyaw won in March 2018. Elections were then held in 2020 that further expanded the influence of the NLD.

After the military refused to acknowledge the results of the 2020 elections, the commander-in-chief of the Myanmar armed forces, Min Aung Hlaing, headed a 2021 coup that resulted in the creation of the State Administration Council (SAC), a military Junta which Min Aung Hlaing chairs. Members of the NLD ousted by the coup formed the National Unity Government (NUG; a government in exile) that same year, and the military branch of the NUG, the People's Defense Force, soon began an insurgency against Min Aung Hlaing's government.

The 2021 coup dissolved the democratic government of Myanmar, but it is still recognized by many to be the legitimate government. The executive branch of the democratic Myanmar government consisted of a president, who served as chief of state and (officially) head of government; two vice presidents; a cabinet that was appointed by the president and confirmed by the legislature; and, since April 2016, the state counsellor, the unofficial but de facto head of government. The president was elected by the parliament and served a five-year term, and the state counsellor also served a five-year term.

Democratic Myanmar’s legislature was the bicameral Assembly of the Union (Pyidaungsu Hluttaw), which consisted of the House of Nationalities (Amyotha Hluttaw) and the House of Representatives (Pyithu Hluttaw). Members of both houses served five-year terms. There were 224 members of the House of Nationalities, 168 of whom were directly elected by absolute majority vote and 56 who were appointed by the military. The House of Representatives consisted of 440 seats, of whom 330 were directly elected by simple majority vote and 110 were appointed by the military.

The country’s highest court was the Supreme Court of the Union. The chief justice and judges were nominated by the president and approved by the House of Representatives.

Myanmar is subdivided into seven administrative regions (taing-myar) and seven states (pyi ne-myar), which reflect in part the country's ethnic groupings, as well as one union territory. The seven regions are Ayeyawady (formerly Irrawaddy), Bago, Magway, Mandalay, Sagaing, Taninthayi, and Yangon; the seven states are Chin, Kachin, Kayah, Kayin, Mon, Rakhine, and Shan; and the union territory is Naypyidaw (the capital). There are also five self-administered zones (four in Shan and one in the Sagaing region) and one self-administered division (in Shan).

Interesting Facts

• Mandalay, the last royal capital of Myanmar, was immortalized in English author Rudyard Kipling's poem "The Road to Mandalay."
• The Burmese cat is a cat breed native to Myanmar that is widely bred in the United States and Europe. Burmese cats have been bred in the United States since the 1930s.
• Maha Thray Sithu U Thant, one of the first people to serve as United Nations secretary general, was a native of Myanmar.
• Traditionally the only form of makeup worn in Myanmar was thanaka, a pale yellow paste made from the bark of certain trees and usually worn on the cheeks and nose. In addition to its cosmetic purpose, thanaka also serves as a sunscreen and is said to have anti-acne and anti-aging properties. Both men and women (and boys and girls) wear thanaka, although it is more common among women and girls.

Bibliography

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Maizland, Lindsay. "Myanmar’s Troubled History: Coups, Military Rule, and Ethnic Conflict." Council on Foreign Relations, 31 Jan. 2022, www.cfr.org/backgrounder/myanmar-history-coup-military-rule-ethnic-conflict-rohingya. Accessed 10 Nov. 2023.

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