Biometrics

Biometrics is the practice of using an individual's physical or behavioral characteristics for identification and verification purposes. The methods employed in biometric identification range from simple fingerprinting to retina scans, voice recognition, and DNA testing. Most commonly, biometric identification is used as a means of improving the security of personal electronic devices, but it can be utilized in a wide variety of other applications as well. However, while the use of biometric technologies is becoming increasingly widespread, critics argue that the shortcomings of such technologies present significant risks to the general public.

History

The concept of biometrics, as it is understood, dates back as far as the late nineteenth century, when fingerprinting was first developed as a tool for law enforcement officials. In 1880, British physician Henry Faulds proposed the use of fingerprints for forensic identification. After Faulds' research was refined and improved by Francis Galton in the 1890s, fingerprinting was quickly adopted by law enforcement agencies for criminal identification purposes. In just a few decades, fingerprinting became one of the leading forms of identification in America.

During the mid-twentieth century, the state government began requiring photo identification for critical personal identification documents such as driver's licenses, while birth certificates remained vital records and did not include fingerprinting or photographs. Gradually, over the course of the remainder of the twentieth century, continued research led to the emergence of many other biometric technologies that have become commonplace.

Biometrics: Types and Applications

Biometric technologies have many possible applications. In general, biometric technologies are categorized according to their mechanism of analysis. The two largest categories are physiological biometrics and behavioral biometrics.

Physiological biometrics use human characteristics that are visually identifiable. Fingerprinting is perhaps the most fundamental example of a physiological biometric. Iris and retina recognition, in which special machines are used to identify people by the unique features of their eyes, is also a form of physiological biometrics. Finger and hand geometry, in which identity is determined through verification of the specific geometric features of those extremities, is another.

Behavioral biometrics involve the observation of various human behaviors for patterns that are unique to specific individuals, such as walking style, signature, and manner of typing. In some cases, a person's online habits can also be used as a behavioral biometric.

Other types of biometrics include voice biometrics, olfactory biometrics, and chemical biometrics. Determining a person's identity based on the sound of his or her voice is an example of a voice biometric. An olfactory biometric identifies people based on smell, though such systems remain largely experimental. Chemical biometrics include advanced forms of biological identification, such as DNA testing.

As the field of biometrics has evolved and broadened, the number of technological innovations making use of biometric data has risen dramatically. Many electronic devices, such as cell phones and tablets, use fingerprint and facial recognition to confirm user identity and thereby protect private information. Fingerprinting technologies are also used to confirm the identity of students and facilitate other processes in some schools. Most casinos rely on facial-recognition software to identify cheaters.

Some biometric technologies are used on a broader scale. The social media website Facebook previously utilized facial recognition software to help users tag their friends in the photos they shared before discontinuing the feature in 2021. Some advertisers use data they acquire about people's Internet habits to tailor their ads to people's specific interests. A number of financial institutions use customer voice imprints as part of their ongoing efforts to prevent fraud. In its Next Generation Identification system, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has built a massive database of fingerprints, palm prints, iris scans, and facial-recognition information that it uses to identify suspects and solve crimes.

Criticism

Though it has yielded numerous technological advancements that serve to improve security and convenience, biometrics continues to be highly controversial. Many critics see biometrics as a flawed science that should only be used with great caution, if at all. Specifically, criticism of biometrics is often based on one of two main arguments: (1) biometrics is subject to certain technical limitations, or (2) it presents problematic legal, ethical, or social concerns.

Critics who focus on the technical limitations of biometrics point out that many of these technologies are inherently flawed and prone to error. Facial-recognition software, for example, may not be able to account for the natural changes that occur because of aging. Similarly, voice-recognition systems may also fail to recognize an authorized user whose voice has changed, perhaps because of a cold or other illness. Such limitations, critics argue, make biometrics potentially unreliable and sometimes even dangerous.

Those who criticize biometrics because of its legal, ethical, or social implications focus on the way biometrics may negatively affect the public's freedom and security. Many argue that the compiling and storing of biometric data may constitute a violation of personal privacy, particularly when there is a lack of appropriate legislative oversight. Indeed, privacy concerns are one of the leading obstacles facing biometric technologies, such as Facebook's facial-recognition software, which uses biometric data to identify people without their permission or knowledge. More broadly, these critics fear that biometrics will ultimately dehumanize people until they are seen as little more than sets of data and then discriminate against them based on this data.

Bibliography

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