RESEARCH STARTER

Sexual abuse

Sexual abuse is a serious form of interpersonal violence that encompasses any forced sexual activity perpetrated by one individual against another. This form of abuse can take various forms, including illegal sexual acts involving minors or individuals unable to give consent, as well as nonphysical abuses such as voyeurism and indecent exposure. The consequences of sexual abuse can be devastating, often resulting in both physical injuries and long-lasting psychological effects like anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Victims of sexual abuse may struggle with feelings of shame, low self-esteem, and difficulty forming relationships, which can persist into adulthood.

The risk factors for victimization include factors such as gender, age, and prior experiences of abuse, while potential abusers may exhibit certain psychological traits or come from abusive backgrounds. Prevention efforts are crucial and involve education about consent, community awareness programs, and resources for both potential victims and perpetrators. Treatment options for survivors include psychological counseling and support groups, which can help them process their experiences and begin recovery. Given the complex and sensitive nature of sexual abuse, it is essential to approach the topic with care and understanding, fostering supportive environments for victims to heal and seek justice.

Full Article

  • TYPE OF PSYCHOLOGY: Clinical; Counseling; Psychopathology, Psychotherapy

Sexual abuse refers to any form of nonconsensual sexual activity that involves coercion, threats, manipulation, or force. National surveys also include forms of sexual violence that occur through technology, such as unwanted sexual messages or the sharing of intimate images without consent, as well as verbal sexual harassment in public or work settings. These surveys show that many women experience contact sexual violence during their lifetime, including completed or attempted rape. People of all genders, ages, and backgrounds may experience sexual abuse. Sexual abuse includes, but is not limited to, unwanted touching, coercive or violent sex, using objects without consent, forcing sexual activity with others, exploiting someone for prostitution, deliberately transmitting sexually transmitted infections (STIs), digital exploitation, including the nonconsensual distribution of intimate images, and any act involving a lack of affirmative and enthusiastic consent.

Introduction

Sexual abuse is a form of interpersonal and systemic violence that involves nonconsensual sexual activity on one person by another. Sexual abuse may include sexual acts that are consensual but legally prohibited, such as sex with minors, people with disabilities, or those who are mentally incapacitated. Abuse may be perpetrated by individuals, institutions, or systems and includes psychological coercion and manipulation.

Nonphysical abuse includes digital grooming, coercive control, exposure to sexually explicit material, and online harassment. Harm can occur even without physical contact, especially when abuse takes place through digital communication. Physical sexual abuse involves direct contact and includes vaginal, anal, or oral penetration, fondling, groping, genital contact, unwanted kissing, violent or coercive sex, and engaging in sexual activity with individuals who are under the influence of substances or otherwise unable to provide consent. Abuse can also occur in power-based relationships (such as educators, caregivers, or clergy).

To gain sexual control, abusers use intimidation, fraud, humiliation, verbal pressure, false promises to gain trust, nonphysical threats, threats of physical harm to cause pregnancy or transmit sexual infections, threats to reveal immigration status or sexual orientation, substances, disability exploitation, misuse of authority, bartering of sexual favors for basic needs, or the providing of drugs, alcohol, or other substances.

Sexual abuse laws distinguish between sexual contact and penetration. Laws in some states focus on nonphysical sexual abuse. Some states specifically address nonconsensual or illegal sexual penetration under state rape or assault laws. Marital rape is criminalized across the United States, although legal definitions, enforcement, and historical exemptions vary by state. Affirmative consent laws and federal Title IX (a US federal law prohibiting sex-based discrimination in education) requirements also shape campus policies. Federal rules under Title IX have been revised over time, which has affected how schools respond to sexual misconduct.

According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the share of rape or sexual assault victimizations reported to police has varied. Approximately one in five women and about one in thirty-one men will experience rape or attempted rape during their lifetime. Around 27.8 percent of male victims of completed rape were first raped at age ten or younger, while the majority of female victims of completed rape experienced their first rape before age twenty-five. A higher share of women who were raped before age eighteen were also raped as adults. In the early 2020s, the Association of American Universities (AAU) Campus Climate Survey on Sexual Assault and Misconduct found that 26.4 percent of undergraduate women at participating campuses reported nonconsensual sexual contact by force or inability to consent since enrollment. Nearly all survivors of rape, stalking, or physical violence report short or long-term effects.

Risk Factors

Factors increasing vulnerability to sexual abuse include gender marginalization, youth, lack of social support, economic dependence, intellectual or physical disabilities, and exposure to high-risk environments (incarceration, institutionalization, or unstable housing). For children, additional risk factors include exposure to domestic violence, parental mental illness or substance use, poverty, and prior abuse. Research also shows that many survivors first experience sexual violence during childhood or adolescence.

Exposure to online environments can also increase risk, especially when digital communication is used to harass, exploit, or coerce individuals.

Risk factors for perpetrating sexual abuse may include a history of trauma or abuse, hostile attitudes toward others (especially women), lack of empathy, endorsement of rigid gender norms, peer support for aggression, substance misuse, and community or cultural norms that condone violence. These risk factors reflect a combination of individual, relational, community, and societal influences.

Signs and Symptoms

Physical signs and symptoms of sexual abuse include bruising, swelling, or bleeding around genitalia, breasts, or mouth, vaginal or anal bleeding, stained or bloody undergarments, sexually transmitted infection, pregnancy, difficulty walking or sitting, or reporting being sexually assaulted.

Psychological signs and symptoms of sexual abuse include anxiety, fear, depression, dissociation, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Anxiety is often associated with depression; its symptoms include excessive worry and negativity, hyper-alertness, apprehension, feeling unsafe, out of control, and an urgent need to escape. Depression symptoms include prolonged feelings of sadness, hopelessness, crying, changes in appetite, lack of energy, sleep disturbances, loss of interest in activities, and suicidal ideation. Fear is a psychological symptom of anxiety. It can manifest in social withdrawal, avoidance of reminders of a situation, person, or place, depersonalization, heightened restlessness, crying, lack of energy, shock, guilt, anxiety, loneliness, confusion, sadness, and hallucinations. Dissociation causes survivors to feel detached from life. Symptoms include sleep disorders, depression, headaches, amnesia, dramatic mood swings, hallucinations, a sense of lost time, self-harm, and suicidal ideation. PTSD symptoms include flashbacks, nightmares, emotional numbness, and intrusive thoughts. Sexual abuse is also linked to physical health problems, including injuries, long-term pain, and increased risk of chronic illness.

Children may exhibit inappropriate sexual behavior and/or sexually abusive behavior toward other children. Sexually abused children may also exhibit changes in behavior. Children up to three years of age may fail to thrive, cry excessively, have extreme fear or sleep disturbances, and may have bowel, feeding, and vomiting issues. Children two to nine years of age may feel shame or guilt, fear specific people, places, and activities, live in fear that the incident will recur, experience eating problems, nightmares, or sleep disturbances, revert to bedwetting, masturbate excessively, become withdrawn, or sexually abuse others. Preadolescents and adolescents may become depressed, promiscuous, aggressive, or angry and may experience powerlessness, eating issues, nightmares or sleep disturbances, fear that the incident will recur, or poor academic performance. They may also run away, become pregnant, get married, abuse substances, act older than their age, or attempt suicide.

The psychological effects of child sexual abuse last into adulthood. Survivors may feel stigmatized and experience low self-esteem, depression, grief, guilt, shame, self-blame, rage, anxiety, fear, and panic attacks. They are often distrustful, have difficulty developing and maintaining relationships, have poor support systems, tend to be revictimized, self-mutilate, or attempt suicide.

Consequences

Those who are negatively affected by sexual abuse experience feelings of distrust, guilt, depression, identity confusion, low self-esteem, and emotional and relationship issues. These effects can include both mental health challenges and long-term physical health problems. They may exhibit self-abuse and antisocial behavior. Different studies measure outcomes in different ways, including general sexual violence and specific forms such as rape or stalking. Some behaviors are consequences of sexual abuse at the same time that they are risk factors for revictimization. Such behaviors include high-risk sexual activities like unprotected sex, multiple sexual partners, commercial sexual exploitation, substance abuse, and diet extremes like fasting, purging, and vomiting.

Prevention and Treatment

Survivors are often reluctant to report sexual abuse because they are afraid they will be harmed by their abuser again, do not want it to become public, feel ashamed, guilty, or embarrassed, or fear they will be blamed or not believed. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) uses a four-step approach to address sexual violence. It includes defining the problem, identifying the risk and protective factors, developing and testing prevention strategies, and assuring widespread adoption. The goal is to stop sexual violence before it begins.

There are also psychological and pharmacological treatments available for survivors of abuse. Stress management, emotional expression, exposure therapy, and group therapy are available to assist in recovery. Antidepressants may also be used when needed. Other evidence-based treatments include Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT), Trauma-Focused CBT (TF-CBT) for children, EMDR (Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing), and Narrative Exposure Therapy for complex trauma. Care often includes coordinated support across medical, legal, and social services to address the needs of survivors. Mental health professionals can provide survivors with information concerning all available resources so they can receive appropriate and effective treatment that works for them. Multidisciplinary care, including medical, legal, and housing support, is an effective approach, particularly for survivors with Complex PTSD (CPTSD).

Children benefit from education on bodily autonomy and safe touch. Early intervention, reassurance, and caregiver support are essential for recovery. Community awareness campaigns, trauma-informed school practices, and accessible reporting channels are key components of prevention. Suspected abuse should be reported to local police and/or child protective agencies.

Convicted sex offenders may be sentenced to correction or rehabilitation facilities. In some countries, chemical castration has been used as a legal sanction for repeat offenders, though its use remains controversial and varies by legal system. Afterward, they are placed on probation or parole based on their risk of sexually abusing again. They must report to their supervisor in addition to following restrictions that may include no contact with survivors, no or limited contact with minors, registration requirements and restrictions on geographic movement, internet use, employment, and residence.


Bibliography

"About Sexual Violence." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 17 Dec. 2025, www.cdc.gov/sexual-violence/about/index.html. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.

Basile, K. "Sexual Violence in the Lives of Girls and Women." Handbook of Women, Stress, and Trauma, edited by K. Kendall-Tackett, Brunner, 2005, pp. 101–22.

Breiding, Matthew Joseph, et al. “The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey: 2010 Findings on Victimization by Sexual Orientation.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013, stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/12362/cdc_12362_DS1.pdf. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.

"Climate Survey on Sexual Assault and Sexual Misconduct." Association of American Universities, 15 Oct. 2019, www.aau.edu/issues/climate-survey-sexual-assault-and-sexual-misconduct. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.

Field, Tracey, and Amy Printz Winterfeld. "Abuse—Sexual Abuse." Tough Problems, Tough Choices: Guidelines for Needs-Based Service Planning in Child Welfare. American Humane Association, 2003.

Gilligan, Leilah. “Fact Sheet: What You Need to Know about Sex Offenders.” Center for Sex Offender Management, 2008. www.cepp.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Fact-Sheet-What-You-Need-to-Know-About-Sex-Offenders-2008.pdf. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.

Krug, Etienne G., et al. “World Report on Violence and Health.” World Health Organization, 2002, pp. 213–39. iris.who.int/server/api/core/bitstreams/a25476ed-8585-47f3-986e-9d0e7f5e9f1b/content. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.

Leemis, Ruth W., et al. “The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey: 2023/2024 Sexual Violence Data Brief.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Dec. 2025, www.cdc.gov/nisvs/media/pdfs/sexualviolence-brief.pdf. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.

“National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS).” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 16 May 2024, www.cdc.gov/nisvs/about/index.html. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.

“Sexual Abuse Offenses.” United States Sentencing Commission, 2024, www.ussc.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/research-and-publications/quick-facts/Sexual_Abuse_FY24.pdf. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.

“Summary of Major Provisions of the Department of Education’s Title IX Final Rule.” US Department of Education, 2025, www.ed.gov/media/document/title-ix-final-rule-summary-33970.pdf. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.

Tapp, Susannah N., and Emilie J. Coen. “Criminal Victimization, 2023.” Bureau of Justice Statistics, 9 June 2025, bjs.ojp.gov/document/cv23.pdf. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.

Tjaden, Patricia, and Nancy Thoennes. “Extent, Nature, and Consequences of Rape Victimization: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey.” National Institute of Justice and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Jan. 2006, stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/21950. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.

Full Article

  • TYPE OF PSYCHOLOGY: Clinical; Counseling; Psychopathology, Psychotherapy

Sexual abuse refers to any form of nonconsensual sexual activity that involves coercion, threats, manipulation, or force. National surveys also include forms of sexual violence that occur through technology, such as unwanted sexual messages or the sharing of intimate images without consent, as well as verbal sexual harassment in public or work settings. These surveys show that many women experience contact sexual violence during their lifetime, including completed or attempted rape. People of all genders, ages, and backgrounds may experience sexual abuse. Sexual abuse includes, but is not limited to, unwanted touching, coercive or violent sex, using objects without consent, forcing sexual activity with others, exploiting someone for prostitution, deliberately transmitting sexually transmitted infections (STIs), digital exploitation, including the nonconsensual distribution of intimate images, and any act involving a lack of affirmative and enthusiastic consent.

Introduction

Sexual abuse is a form of interpersonal and systemic violence that involves nonconsensual sexual activity on one person by another. Sexual abuse may include sexual acts that are consensual but legally prohibited, such as sex with minors, people with disabilities, or those who are mentally incapacitated. Abuse may be perpetrated by individuals, institutions, or systems and includes psychological coercion and manipulation.

Nonphysical abuse includes digital grooming, coercive control, exposure to sexually explicit material, and online harassment. Harm can occur even without physical contact, especially when abuse takes place through digital communication. Physical sexual abuse involves direct contact and includes vaginal, anal, or oral penetration, fondling, groping, genital contact, unwanted kissing, violent or coercive sex, and engaging in sexual activity with individuals who are under the influence of substances or otherwise unable to provide consent. Abuse can also occur in power-based relationships (such as educators, caregivers, or clergy).

To gain sexual control, abusers use intimidation, fraud, humiliation, verbal pressure, false promises to gain trust, nonphysical threats, threats of physical harm to cause pregnancy or transmit sexual infections, threats to reveal immigration status or sexual orientation, substances, disability exploitation, misuse of authority, bartering of sexual favors for basic needs, or the providing of drugs, alcohol, or other substances.

Sexual abuse laws distinguish between sexual contact and penetration. Laws in some states focus on nonphysical sexual abuse. Some states specifically address nonconsensual or illegal sexual penetration under state rape or assault laws. Marital rape is criminalized across the United States, although legal definitions, enforcement, and historical exemptions vary by state. Affirmative consent laws and federal Title IX (a US federal law prohibiting sex-based discrimination in education) requirements also shape campus policies. Federal rules under Title IX have been revised over time, which has affected how schools respond to sexual misconduct.

According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the share of rape or sexual assault victimizations reported to police has varied. Approximately one in five women and about one in thirty-one men will experience rape or attempted rape during their lifetime. Around 27.8 percent of male victims of completed rape were first raped at age ten or younger, while the majority of female victims of completed rape experienced their first rape before age twenty-five. A higher share of women who were raped before age eighteen were also raped as adults. In the early 2020s, the Association of American Universities (AAU) Campus Climate Survey on Sexual Assault and Misconduct found that 26.4 percent of undergraduate women at participating campuses reported nonconsensual sexual contact by force or inability to consent since enrollment. Nearly all survivors of rape, stalking, or physical violence report short or long-term effects.

Risk Factors

Factors increasing vulnerability to sexual abuse include gender marginalization, youth, lack of social support, economic dependence, intellectual or physical disabilities, and exposure to high-risk environments (incarceration, institutionalization, or unstable housing). For children, additional risk factors include exposure to domestic violence, parental mental illness or substance use, poverty, and prior abuse. Research also shows that many survivors first experience sexual violence during childhood or adolescence.

Exposure to online environments can also increase risk, especially when digital communication is used to harass, exploit, or coerce individuals.

Risk factors for perpetrating sexual abuse may include a history of trauma or abuse, hostile attitudes toward others (especially women), lack of empathy, endorsement of rigid gender norms, peer support for aggression, substance misuse, and community or cultural norms that condone violence. These risk factors reflect a combination of individual, relational, community, and societal influences.

Signs and Symptoms

Physical signs and symptoms of sexual abuse include bruising, swelling, or bleeding around genitalia, breasts, or mouth, vaginal or anal bleeding, stained or bloody undergarments, sexually transmitted infection, pregnancy, difficulty walking or sitting, or reporting being sexually assaulted.

Psychological signs and symptoms of sexual abuse include anxiety, fear, depression, dissociation, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Anxiety is often associated with depression; its symptoms include excessive worry and negativity, hyper-alertness, apprehension, feeling unsafe, out of control, and an urgent need to escape. Depression symptoms include prolonged feelings of sadness, hopelessness, crying, changes in appetite, lack of energy, sleep disturbances, loss of interest in activities, and suicidal ideation. Fear is a psychological symptom of anxiety. It can manifest in social withdrawal, avoidance of reminders of a situation, person, or place, depersonalization, heightened restlessness, crying, lack of energy, shock, guilt, anxiety, loneliness, confusion, sadness, and hallucinations. Dissociation causes survivors to feel detached from life. Symptoms include sleep disorders, depression, headaches, amnesia, dramatic mood swings, hallucinations, a sense of lost time, self-harm, and suicidal ideation. PTSD symptoms include flashbacks, nightmares, emotional numbness, and intrusive thoughts. Sexual abuse is also linked to physical health problems, including injuries, long-term pain, and increased risk of chronic illness.

Children may exhibit inappropriate sexual behavior and/or sexually abusive behavior toward other children. Sexually abused children may also exhibit changes in behavior. Children up to three years of age may fail to thrive, cry excessively, have extreme fear or sleep disturbances, and may have bowel, feeding, and vomiting issues. Children two to nine years of age may feel shame or guilt, fear specific people, places, and activities, live in fear that the incident will recur, experience eating problems, nightmares, or sleep disturbances, revert to bedwetting, masturbate excessively, become withdrawn, or sexually abuse others. Preadolescents and adolescents may become depressed, promiscuous, aggressive, or angry and may experience powerlessness, eating issues, nightmares or sleep disturbances, fear that the incident will recur, or poor academic performance. They may also run away, become pregnant, get married, abuse substances, act older than their age, or attempt suicide.

The psychological effects of child sexual abuse last into adulthood. Survivors may feel stigmatized and experience low self-esteem, depression, grief, guilt, shame, self-blame, rage, anxiety, fear, and panic attacks. They are often distrustful, have difficulty developing and maintaining relationships, have poor support systems, tend to be revictimized, self-mutilate, or attempt suicide.

Consequences

Those who are negatively affected by sexual abuse experience feelings of distrust, guilt, depression, identity confusion, low self-esteem, and emotional and relationship issues. These effects can include both mental health challenges and long-term physical health problems. They may exhibit self-abuse and antisocial behavior. Different studies measure outcomes in different ways, including general sexual violence and specific forms such as rape or stalking. Some behaviors are consequences of sexual abuse at the same time that they are risk factors for revictimization. Such behaviors include high-risk sexual activities like unprotected sex, multiple sexual partners, commercial sexual exploitation, substance abuse, and diet extremes like fasting, purging, and vomiting.

Prevention and Treatment

Survivors are often reluctant to report sexual abuse because they are afraid they will be harmed by their abuser again, do not want it to become public, feel ashamed, guilty, or embarrassed, or fear they will be blamed or not believed. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) uses a four-step approach to address sexual violence. It includes defining the problem, identifying the risk and protective factors, developing and testing prevention strategies, and assuring widespread adoption. The goal is to stop sexual violence before it begins.

There are also psychological and pharmacological treatments available for survivors of abuse. Stress management, emotional expression, exposure therapy, and group therapy are available to assist in recovery. Antidepressants may also be used when needed. Other evidence-based treatments include Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT), Trauma-Focused CBT (TF-CBT) for children, EMDR (Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing), and Narrative Exposure Therapy for complex trauma. Care often includes coordinated support across medical, legal, and social services to address the needs of survivors. Mental health professionals can provide survivors with information concerning all available resources so they can receive appropriate and effective treatment that works for them. Multidisciplinary care, including medical, legal, and housing support, is an effective approach, particularly for survivors with Complex PTSD (CPTSD).

Children benefit from education on bodily autonomy and safe touch. Early intervention, reassurance, and caregiver support are essential for recovery. Community awareness campaigns, trauma-informed school practices, and accessible reporting channels are key components of prevention. Suspected abuse should be reported to local police and/or child protective agencies.

Convicted sex offenders may be sentenced to correction or rehabilitation facilities. In some countries, chemical castration has been used as a legal sanction for repeat offenders, though its use remains controversial and varies by legal system. Afterward, they are placed on probation or parole based on their risk of sexually abusing again. They must report to their supervisor in addition to following restrictions that may include no contact with survivors, no or limited contact with minors, registration requirements and restrictions on geographic movement, internet use, employment, and residence.


Bibliography

"About Sexual Violence." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 17 Dec. 2025, www.cdc.gov/sexual-violence/about/index.html. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.

Basile, K. "Sexual Violence in the Lives of Girls and Women." Handbook of Women, Stress, and Trauma, edited by K. Kendall-Tackett, Brunner, 2005, pp. 101–22.

Breiding, Matthew Joseph, et al. “The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey: 2010 Findings on Victimization by Sexual Orientation.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013, stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/12362/cdc_12362_DS1.pdf. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.

"Climate Survey on Sexual Assault and Sexual Misconduct." Association of American Universities, 15 Oct. 2019, www.aau.edu/issues/climate-survey-sexual-assault-and-sexual-misconduct. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.

Field, Tracey, and Amy Printz Winterfeld. "Abuse—Sexual Abuse." Tough Problems, Tough Choices: Guidelines for Needs-Based Service Planning in Child Welfare. American Humane Association, 2003.

Gilligan, Leilah. “Fact Sheet: What You Need to Know about Sex Offenders.” Center for Sex Offender Management, 2008. www.cepp.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Fact-Sheet-What-You-Need-to-Know-About-Sex-Offenders-2008.pdf. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.

Krug, Etienne G., et al. “World Report on Violence and Health.” World Health Organization, 2002, pp. 213–39. iris.who.int/server/api/core/bitstreams/a25476ed-8585-47f3-986e-9d0e7f5e9f1b/content. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.

Leemis, Ruth W., et al. “The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey: 2023/2024 Sexual Violence Data Brief.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Dec. 2025, www.cdc.gov/nisvs/media/pdfs/sexualviolence-brief.pdf. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.

“National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS).” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 16 May 2024, www.cdc.gov/nisvs/about/index.html. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.

“Sexual Abuse Offenses.” United States Sentencing Commission, 2024, www.ussc.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/research-and-publications/quick-facts/Sexual_Abuse_FY24.pdf. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.

“Summary of Major Provisions of the Department of Education’s Title IX Final Rule.” US Department of Education, 2025, www.ed.gov/media/document/title-ix-final-rule-summary-33970.pdf. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.

Tapp, Susannah N., and Emilie J. Coen. “Criminal Victimization, 2023.” Bureau of Justice Statistics, 9 June 2025, bjs.ojp.gov/document/cv23.pdf. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.

Tjaden, Patricia, and Nancy Thoennes. “Extent, Nature, and Consequences of Rape Victimization: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey.” National Institute of Justice and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Jan. 2006, stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/21950. Accessed 27 Mar. 2026.

More Like ThisRelated Articles

Related Articles (5)

Related Articles (5)