Social media addiction

Social media addiction refers to a pattern of excessive and compulsive use of social media platforms that leads to harmful consequences, despite users recognizing these negative impacts. The prevalence of social media is staggering, with approximately 4.3 billion active users globally, reflecting its significant role in modern communication and social interaction. Platforms like Facebook, Twitter (now called "X"), and Instagram have transformed how people connect, often resulting in behaviors that prioritize online interactions over real-life relationships. Research indicates that social media platforms can trigger the brain's reward system, fostering addictive behaviors linked to impulsivity and emotional regulation challenges.

The complex relationship between social media use and psychological factors such as loneliness, anxiety, and self-esteem has garnered attention, highlighting that while some may seek meaningful connections online, others may experience increased feelings of isolation. Studies have shown that people with low self-esteem are particularly susceptible to dysfunctional social media use, often seeking validation through online engagement. Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic intensified reliance on social media for connection, leading to increased screen time and further blurring the lines between virtual and real-life relationships. Recent calls for regulatory changes emphasize the need for greater awareness of the potential mental health risks associated with social media use, particularly among younger audiences.

Full Article

DEFINITION: Social media addiction represents a constellation of uncontrollable, impulsive, and damaging behaviors caused by persistent social media usage that continues despite repeated negative consequences.

Background

The rise in popularity of social media websites, such as Facebook, Snapchat, Instagram, and Twitter, has given rise to a period of significant social media consumption, with billions of active users worldwide. Professional journals have chronicled the ongoing relationship with social media and published studies on the effects of social media on human behavior.

Facebook, for example, has changed the way that people communicate and maintain social relationships, both in productive and nonproductive ways. X (formerly Twitter) has become a global platform through which users can collect, report, and share news. Communicating with other people has become easier and more immediate, while the boundaries, rules, and language that govern this communication have become more convoluted. As a result, research focused on how and why people use social media, and technology in general, has been on the rise. For instance, psychologist Julia Hormes hypothesized that the unpredictable updates on social media platforms and self-disclosures inherent in the process both activate the brain's reward circuitry, reinforcing the behaviors. Other research has suggested that people use social media for a sense of belonging, much as they would join social groups in the real world. Furthermore, features of one’s personality that predict heavy or limited social media use have been under investigation. For instance, poor emotion regulation, impulsivity, poor self-control, low body self-esteem, and internet addiction were associated with social media dependence among young adults in one 2020 study. The merits of what widely interconnected, online relationships mean for face-to-face communication, intimacy, and privacy have become the objects of study as well.

The Human Relationship with Technology

Social media researcher Sherry Turkle has been exploring the interaction of human relationships and technology for decades. Her work has developed a collective understanding of how human beings interface with a technological society. Her seminal works applying self and interpersonal theories to social media relationships were predictive and formative. Turkle has shown that technological advances have made it virtually impossible to isolate oneself from complex interpersonal relationships.

Additionally, technology has done as much to challenge self-representation as it has challenged interpersonal relationships; for instance, many Facebook users report feeling anxiety in trying to manage their self-representation to varying audiences of friends, family, and professional connections on the site. Social media sites also encourage attention-seeking behaviors. In so doing, the ways that one’s real life aligns with one’s virtual life are telling and have become useful fodder for ongoing research.

Studies performed on the impact of social media have linked increased social media usage to serious implications on brain function, self-esteem, and everyday life. Comparitech reported in 2025 that internet users around the world spend an average of 6 hours and 38 minutes each day looking at a screen. A 2022 article published by Child Mind Institute indicated that evidence is mounting that a link exists between social medial use and depression among teens. Furthermore, a 2022 report released by the European Society of Medicine (ESMED) concluded that social media apps are designed to be inherently addictive. Experts have questioned whether the benefits of social media outweigh the consequences. A 2021 study published by the National Academy of Sciences argued that the advent of social media has created echo chambers, misinformation, polarization, and general destabilization detrimental to society at a scale previously impossible in human history.

Psychological Addiction? Loneliness, Anxiety, Shyness

Because of the long-held assumption that social media helps to foster meaningful online relationships, and because of the ease with which one can build a relationship with someone previously unknown to them, three psychological concerns in particular have been studied: loneliness, anxiety, and shyness. No consensus exists on how these factors intersect with one’s proclivity for social media use (or for social media addiction), though there are a few interesting points to highlight.

First, research has revealed mixed findings regarding people who self-identify as “lonely” and people who self-identify as “anxious.” Some research has indicated that lonely people prefer face-to-face interaction (they find that social media lacks intimacy), whereas anxious people prefer electronic modes of communication. As such, loneliness could be better understood as something self-representational (with concerns hovering around issues of the self rather than of a specific fear of others or of socializing with others). According to a University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee meta-analysis of loneliness and Facebook use, lonelier people spend more time on the site despite not feeling their loneliness lessen while using it. Anxious people prefer social media because of the anonymity involved, making it easier to rationalize possible disapproval while having more control over how the other person experiences them. Studies have also suggested that those with low self-esteem are particularly vulnerable to dysfunctional social media usage, as they repeatedly seek the rewards of self-disclosure, but often discourage their social media contacts with negative sharing.

Second, shyness is not something that inhibits social media usage, despite the likelihood that shy people will experience the same minimal amount of social contact online as they would otherwise. Despite reported difficulty maintaining online relationships, shy people report heightened satisfaction in their virtual worlds. This is likely because they are spending more time seeking, surveying, and considering positive social encounters while online. Additionally, social media provides a rather safe and secure outlet for heightened social interaction.

Third, the issue of locus of control has come under scrutiny as it relates to potential social media addiction. Specifically, research has examined closely the types of reinforcements experienced by heavy social media users. People are less likely to become addicted to social media if they feel that they have control over their own lives both online and off, whereas people are more likely to be addicted to social media if they feel as though others have greater control over them both online and off.

Turkle’s analysis of the internet and social media as seductive is especially relevant here, particularly when one considers the fluid nature of a person’s experience of social media. That is, a person can update, alter, change, or redefine their online identity with the click of a button. Additionally, ephemeral media, or content that has only a fleeting existence and then self-deletes, such as videos or photos posted on Snapchat, heightens the illusion of anonymity. At the same time, because there is a limited window of viewing opportunity, ephemeral media could be seen as even more addictive, as it is necessary for the user to interact even more frequently. Research suggests that the high engagement of social networking users could be due to users' apprehension about missing out on an experience. A study at the University of Chicago found that social media can be more addictive than cigarettes and alcohol.

During the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, addiction to social media use took on yet another meaning due to the changed context of that use. The quarantines and lockdowns implemented to attempt to stop the spread of the virus meant that many people relied on social media even more than before to connect with even those people closest to them regularly, as well as to get real-time insight into discussions around the pandemic and its effects. At the same time, research tended to show an even more drastic increase in new users of social media as well as the amount of average time spent on the platforms, furthering the hypothesis that social media had become, for many, a crucial, perhaps addictive, digital replacement for the loss of in-person interactions and an escape from feelings of isolation caused by the pandemic.

In 2024, Dr. Vivek Murthy, then US surgeon general, urged the implementation of warnings on social media apps that inform users of the link between social media use and mental health issues among adolescents. Dr. Murthy recommended fundamental changes to social media sites to reduce excessive use among children. He also recommended passing legislation to protect children from online abuse and harassment.


Bibliography

Bak-Coleman, Joseph B., et al. “Stewardship of Global Collective Behavior.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 118, no. 27, 2021, doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2025764118. Accessed 5 Aug. 2025.

Beard, Keith W. “Internet Addiction: A Review of Current Assessment Techniques and Potential Assessment Questions.” Cyberpsychology and Behavior, vol. 8, no. 1, 2007, pp. 7–14.

Boers, Elroy, et al. “Association of Screen Time and Depression in Adolescence.” JAMA Pediatrics, vol. 173, no. 9, 2019, pp. 853–59, doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2019.1759. Accessed 5 Aug. 2025.

Chak, Katherine M., and Louis Leung. “Shyness and Locus of Control as Predictors of Internet Addiction and Internet Use.” Cyberpsychology and Behavior, vol. 7, no. 5, 2004, pp. 559–70.

Chia-Yi, Mba, and Feng-Yang Kuo. “A Study of Internet Addiction through the Lens of the Interpersonal Theory.” Cyberpsychology and Behavior, vol. 10, no. 6, 2007, pp. 799–804.

Feiler, Bruce. “For the Love of Being ‘Liked’: For Some Social-Media Users, an Anxiety from Approval Seeking.” The New York Times, 9 May 2014.

Forest, Amanda L., and Joanne V. Wood. “When Social Networking Is Not Working: Individuals with Low Self-Esteem Recognize but Do Not Reap the Benefits of Self-Disclosure on Facebook.” Psychological Science, vol. 23, no. 3, 2012, pp. 295–302.

Hawi, Nazir S., and Maya Samaha. “The Relations Among Social Media Addiction, Self-Esteem, and Life Satisfaction in University Students.” Social Science Computer Review, vol. 35, no. 5, 2017, pp. 576–86.

Haynes, Trevor, and Rebecca Clements. “Dopamine, Smartphones and You: A Battle for Your Time.” Harvard University, 1 May 2018.

Hormes, Julia M., Brianna Kearns, and C. Alix Timko. “Craving Facebook? Behavioral Addiction to Online Social Networking and Its Association with Emotion Regulation Deficits.” Addiction, vol. 109, no. 12, 2014, pp. 2079–88.

Lam, Lawrence T., et al. “Factors Associated with Internet Addiction among Adolescents.” Cyberpsychology and Behavior, vol. 12, no. 5, 2009, pp. 551–55.

Miller, Caroline. “Does Social Media Cause Depression?” Child Mind Institute, 1 Apr. 2025, childmind.org/article/is-social-media-use-causing-depression/. Accessed 5 Aug. 2025.

Molla, Rani. “Posting Less, Posting More, and Tired of It All: How the Pandemic Has Changed Social Media.” Recode, Vox Media, 1 Mar. 2021, www.vox.com/recode/22295131/social-media-use-pandemic-covid-19-instagram-tiktok. Accessed 5 Aug. 2025.

Moody, Rebecca. “Screen Time Statistics: Average Screen Time in US vs. the Rest of the World.” Comparitech,26 Mar. 2025, www.comparitech.com/tv-streaming/screen-time-statistics/. Accessed 5 Aug. 2025.

Muise, Amy M., Emily Christofides, and Serge Desmarais. “More Information Than You Ever Wanted: Does Facebook Bring out the Green-Eyed Monster of Jealousy?” Cyberpsychology and Behavior, vol. 12, no. 4, 2009, pp. 441–44.

Mujica, Alejandro, et al. “Addition by Design: Some Dimensions and Challenges of Excessive Social Media Use.” European Society of Medicine (ESMED), 24 Feb. 2022, doi.org/10.18103/mra.v10i2.2677. Accessed 5 Aug. 2025.

Murthy, Vivek H. “Surgeon General: Why I'm Calling for a Warning Label on Social Media Platforms.” The New York Times, 17 June 2024, www.nytimes.com/2024/06/17/opinion/social-media-health-warning.html. Accessed 5 Aug. 2025.

Orr, Emily S., et al. “The Influence of Shyness on the Use of Facebook in an Undergraduate Sample.” Cyberpsychology and Behavior, vol. 12, no. 3, 2009, pp. 337–40.

Peris, Montserrat, et al. “Psychological Risk Factors That Predict Social Networking and Internet Addiction in Adolescents.” International Journal of Environmental Research & Public Health, vol. 17, no. 12, 2020, p. 4598, doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124598. Accessed 5 Aug. 2025.

Rosen, Larry D. iDisorder: Understanding Our Dependency on Technology and Overcoming Our Addiction. Palgrave, 2012.

Stevens, Sarah, and Tracy Morris. “College Dating and Social Anxiety: Using the Internet as a Means of Connecting to Others.” Cyberpsychology and Behavior, vol. 10, no. 5, 2007, pp. 680–88.

Turkle, Sherry. “Whither Psychoanalysis in Computer Culture.” Psychoanalytic Psychology, vol. 21, no. 1, 2004, pp. 16–30.

Full Article

DEFINITION: Social media addiction represents a constellation of uncontrollable, impulsive, and damaging behaviors caused by persistent social media usage that continues despite repeated negative consequences.

Background

The rise in popularity of social media websites, such as Facebook, Snapchat, Instagram, and Twitter, has given rise to a period of significant social media consumption, with billions of active users worldwide. Professional journals have chronicled the ongoing relationship with social media and published studies on the effects of social media on human behavior.

Facebook, for example, has changed the way that people communicate and maintain social relationships, both in productive and nonproductive ways. X (formerly Twitter) has become a global platform through which users can collect, report, and share news. Communicating with other people has become easier and more immediate, while the boundaries, rules, and language that govern this communication have become more convoluted. As a result, research focused on how and why people use social media, and technology in general, has been on the rise. For instance, psychologist Julia Hormes hypothesized that the unpredictable updates on social media platforms and self-disclosures inherent in the process both activate the brain's reward circuitry, reinforcing the behaviors. Other research has suggested that people use social media for a sense of belonging, much as they would join social groups in the real world. Furthermore, features of one’s personality that predict heavy or limited social media use have been under investigation. For instance, poor emotion regulation, impulsivity, poor self-control, low body self-esteem, and internet addiction were associated with social media dependence among young adults in one 2020 study. The merits of what widely interconnected, online relationships mean for face-to-face communication, intimacy, and privacy have become the objects of study as well.

The Human Relationship with Technology

Social media researcher Sherry Turkle has been exploring the interaction of human relationships and technology for decades. Her work has developed a collective understanding of how human beings interface with a technological society. Her seminal works applying self and interpersonal theories to social media relationships were predictive and formative. Turkle has shown that technological advances have made it virtually impossible to isolate oneself from complex interpersonal relationships.

Additionally, technology has done as much to challenge self-representation as it has challenged interpersonal relationships; for instance, many Facebook users report feeling anxiety in trying to manage their self-representation to varying audiences of friends, family, and professional connections on the site. Social media sites also encourage attention-seeking behaviors. In so doing, the ways that one’s real life aligns with one’s virtual life are telling and have become useful fodder for ongoing research.

Studies performed on the impact of social media have linked increased social media usage to serious implications on brain function, self-esteem, and everyday life. Comparitech reported in 2025 that internet users around the world spend an average of 6 hours and 38 minutes each day looking at a screen. A 2022 article published by Child Mind Institute indicated that evidence is mounting that a link exists between social medial use and depression among teens. Furthermore, a 2022 report released by the European Society of Medicine (ESMED) concluded that social media apps are designed to be inherently addictive. Experts have questioned whether the benefits of social media outweigh the consequences. A 2021 study published by the National Academy of Sciences argued that the advent of social media has created echo chambers, misinformation, polarization, and general destabilization detrimental to society at a scale previously impossible in human history.

Psychological Addiction? Loneliness, Anxiety, Shyness

Because of the long-held assumption that social media helps to foster meaningful online relationships, and because of the ease with which one can build a relationship with someone previously unknown to them, three psychological concerns in particular have been studied: loneliness, anxiety, and shyness. No consensus exists on how these factors intersect with one’s proclivity for social media use (or for social media addiction), though there are a few interesting points to highlight.

First, research has revealed mixed findings regarding people who self-identify as “lonely” and people who self-identify as “anxious.” Some research has indicated that lonely people prefer face-to-face interaction (they find that social media lacks intimacy), whereas anxious people prefer electronic modes of communication. As such, loneliness could be better understood as something self-representational (with concerns hovering around issues of the self rather than of a specific fear of others or of socializing with others). According to a University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee meta-analysis of loneliness and Facebook use, lonelier people spend more time on the site despite not feeling their loneliness lessen while using it. Anxious people prefer social media because of the anonymity involved, making it easier to rationalize possible disapproval while having more control over how the other person experiences them. Studies have also suggested that those with low self-esteem are particularly vulnerable to dysfunctional social media usage, as they repeatedly seek the rewards of self-disclosure, but often discourage their social media contacts with negative sharing.

Second, shyness is not something that inhibits social media usage, despite the likelihood that shy people will experience the same minimal amount of social contact online as they would otherwise. Despite reported difficulty maintaining online relationships, shy people report heightened satisfaction in their virtual worlds. This is likely because they are spending more time seeking, surveying, and considering positive social encounters while online. Additionally, social media provides a rather safe and secure outlet for heightened social interaction.

Third, the issue of locus of control has come under scrutiny as it relates to potential social media addiction. Specifically, research has examined closely the types of reinforcements experienced by heavy social media users. People are less likely to become addicted to social media if they feel that they have control over their own lives both online and off, whereas people are more likely to be addicted to social media if they feel as though others have greater control over them both online and off.

Turkle’s analysis of the internet and social media as seductive is especially relevant here, particularly when one considers the fluid nature of a person’s experience of social media. That is, a person can update, alter, change, or redefine their online identity with the click of a button. Additionally, ephemeral media, or content that has only a fleeting existence and then self-deletes, such as videos or photos posted on Snapchat, heightens the illusion of anonymity. At the same time, because there is a limited window of viewing opportunity, ephemeral media could be seen as even more addictive, as it is necessary for the user to interact even more frequently. Research suggests that the high engagement of social networking users could be due to users' apprehension about missing out on an experience. A study at the University of Chicago found that social media can be more addictive than cigarettes and alcohol.

During the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, addiction to social media use took on yet another meaning due to the changed context of that use. The quarantines and lockdowns implemented to attempt to stop the spread of the virus meant that many people relied on social media even more than before to connect with even those people closest to them regularly, as well as to get real-time insight into discussions around the pandemic and its effects. At the same time, research tended to show an even more drastic increase in new users of social media as well as the amount of average time spent on the platforms, furthering the hypothesis that social media had become, for many, a crucial, perhaps addictive, digital replacement for the loss of in-person interactions and an escape from feelings of isolation caused by the pandemic.

In 2024, Dr. Vivek Murthy, then US surgeon general, urged the implementation of warnings on social media apps that inform users of the link between social media use and mental health issues among adolescents. Dr. Murthy recommended fundamental changes to social media sites to reduce excessive use among children. He also recommended passing legislation to protect children from online abuse and harassment.


Bibliography

Bak-Coleman, Joseph B., et al. “Stewardship of Global Collective Behavior.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 118, no. 27, 2021, doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2025764118. Accessed 5 Aug. 2025.

Beard, Keith W. “Internet Addiction: A Review of Current Assessment Techniques and Potential Assessment Questions.” Cyberpsychology and Behavior, vol. 8, no. 1, 2007, pp. 7–14.

Boers, Elroy, et al. “Association of Screen Time and Depression in Adolescence.” JAMA Pediatrics, vol. 173, no. 9, 2019, pp. 853–59, doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2019.1759. Accessed 5 Aug. 2025.

Chak, Katherine M., and Louis Leung. “Shyness and Locus of Control as Predictors of Internet Addiction and Internet Use.” Cyberpsychology and Behavior, vol. 7, no. 5, 2004, pp. 559–70.

Chia-Yi, Mba, and Feng-Yang Kuo. “A Study of Internet Addiction through the Lens of the Interpersonal Theory.” Cyberpsychology and Behavior, vol. 10, no. 6, 2007, pp. 799–804.

Feiler, Bruce. “For the Love of Being ‘Liked’: For Some Social-Media Users, an Anxiety from Approval Seeking.” The New York Times, 9 May 2014.

Forest, Amanda L., and Joanne V. Wood. “When Social Networking Is Not Working: Individuals with Low Self-Esteem Recognize but Do Not Reap the Benefits of Self-Disclosure on Facebook.” Psychological Science, vol. 23, no. 3, 2012, pp. 295–302.

Hawi, Nazir S., and Maya Samaha. “The Relations Among Social Media Addiction, Self-Esteem, and Life Satisfaction in University Students.” Social Science Computer Review, vol. 35, no. 5, 2017, pp. 576–86.

Haynes, Trevor, and Rebecca Clements. “Dopamine, Smartphones and You: A Battle for Your Time.” Harvard University, 1 May 2018.

Hormes, Julia M., Brianna Kearns, and C. Alix Timko. “Craving Facebook? Behavioral Addiction to Online Social Networking and Its Association with Emotion Regulation Deficits.” Addiction, vol. 109, no. 12, 2014, pp. 2079–88.

Lam, Lawrence T., et al. “Factors Associated with Internet Addiction among Adolescents.” Cyberpsychology and Behavior, vol. 12, no. 5, 2009, pp. 551–55.

Miller, Caroline. “Does Social Media Cause Depression?” Child Mind Institute, 1 Apr. 2025, childmind.org/article/is-social-media-use-causing-depression/. Accessed 5 Aug. 2025.

Molla, Rani. “Posting Less, Posting More, and Tired of It All: How the Pandemic Has Changed Social Media.” Recode, Vox Media, 1 Mar. 2021, www.vox.com/recode/22295131/social-media-use-pandemic-covid-19-instagram-tiktok. Accessed 5 Aug. 2025.

Moody, Rebecca. “Screen Time Statistics: Average Screen Time in US vs. the Rest of the World.” Comparitech,26 Mar. 2025, www.comparitech.com/tv-streaming/screen-time-statistics/. Accessed 5 Aug. 2025.

Muise, Amy M., Emily Christofides, and Serge Desmarais. “More Information Than You Ever Wanted: Does Facebook Bring out the Green-Eyed Monster of Jealousy?” Cyberpsychology and Behavior, vol. 12, no. 4, 2009, pp. 441–44.

Mujica, Alejandro, et al. “Addition by Design: Some Dimensions and Challenges of Excessive Social Media Use.” European Society of Medicine (ESMED), 24 Feb. 2022, doi.org/10.18103/mra.v10i2.2677. Accessed 5 Aug. 2025.

Murthy, Vivek H. “Surgeon General: Why I'm Calling for a Warning Label on Social Media Platforms.” The New York Times, 17 June 2024, www.nytimes.com/2024/06/17/opinion/social-media-health-warning.html. Accessed 5 Aug. 2025.

Orr, Emily S., et al. “The Influence of Shyness on the Use of Facebook in an Undergraduate Sample.” Cyberpsychology and Behavior, vol. 12, no. 3, 2009, pp. 337–40.

Peris, Montserrat, et al. “Psychological Risk Factors That Predict Social Networking and Internet Addiction in Adolescents.” International Journal of Environmental Research & Public Health, vol. 17, no. 12, 2020, p. 4598, doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124598. Accessed 5 Aug. 2025.

Rosen, Larry D. iDisorder: Understanding Our Dependency on Technology and Overcoming Our Addiction. Palgrave, 2012.

Stevens, Sarah, and Tracy Morris. “College Dating and Social Anxiety: Using the Internet as a Means of Connecting to Others.” Cyberpsychology and Behavior, vol. 10, no. 5, 2007, pp. 680–88.

Turkle, Sherry. “Whither Psychoanalysis in Computer Culture.” Psychoanalytic Psychology, vol. 21, no. 1, 2004, pp. 16–30.

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