Burmese Civil Wars of 1948–1958

At issue: Political identity of postcolonial Burma

Date: January 4, 1948-October 28, 1958

Location: Burma

Combatants: Burmese army vs. Communists, Karens, and other ethnic minorities

Principal commanders:Burmese, Colonel Ne Win; Communist, Thakin Than Tun; Karen, Saw Sankey, Saw Ba U Gyi

Principal battles: Taikkyi, Insein, Taunggyi, Lewe, Papun

Result: Consolidation of Burma’s multiethnic population under military rule

Background

The ethnically and linguistically diverse population of Burma emerged from World War II with extensive experience in anti-Japanese guerrilla warfare. British colonial rule was reestablished during the 1945–1948 period, and poor economic management produced food shortages, unemployment, and political violence. Both urban laborers and rural peasants were drawn to the Communist Party of Burma, which, despite the breakaway of its most radical elements, quickly became one of the largest political parties in Burma. Traditional interethnic antagonisms were inflamed when the departing British installed U Nu, of the ethnic Burmese majority, as prime minister. Burma gained its independence from Britain on January 4, 1948.

Action

Independence brought the revitalization of World War II-era guerrilla organizations, including those of the Communist Party and the Karens, an ethnic minority. Following the lead of other Asian communists, the Communist Party of Burma announced its militant opposition to the new government. Strikes and protests brought counterattacks by the anticommunist Socialist Party and by government police. By late March, 1948, Rangoon was in turmoil, and U Nu’s troops forced Communist leaders to flee. In May, 1948, the Communists, whose leaders included Thakin Than Tun, endorsed an armed struggle policy and formally established a “liberation army.” By mid-1949, the Communists controlled 71,000 square miles of territory and a population of 6 million.

Experienced Karen military leaders, including Saw Sankey and Saw Ba U Gyi, recognized the government’s increasing vulnerability. In late 1948, Karen guerrillas provoked an attack by the Burmese army on Karen villages south of Rangoon in the Taikkyi district (January, 1949). Hundreds of Karen civilians were killed, including scores of people who were summarily executed. Karen leaders responded by declaring the creation of their own Karen state. A large offensive aimed at seizing Rangoon began with an attack by Karen forces on Insein, just south of the capital (January 31, 1949). Several strategic points were captured, but the Burmese army reinforced Rangoon with troops pulled from operations elsewhere. Still, Karen forces seized much of the Irrawaddy delta and shifted offensive operations to northeastern Burma, where they captured the town of Taunggyi (August 13, 1949). These successes encouraged another ethnic minority, the Mons, to launch a guerrilla insurgency near the border with East Pakistan (later Bangladesh). Muslims also rebelled against Burmese authority.

A turning point came in March, 1949, when the splintered Communist guerrillas failed to form a unified command. Meanwhile, Indian prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru rushed military aid to the Burmese army, and British forces provided training in antiguerrilla tactics learned in Malaya. Burma also received economic aid from the United States. Its army began recruiting from smaller ethnic minorities who historically disliked the Karens, including the Kachins and Chins. In late 1949, an offensive led by Colonel Ne Win seized most Irrawaddy delta towns from the Karens. An assault by Communist units on Lewe was turned back (December, 1950).

In late 1951, the character of the conflict changed from a nationwide insurrection to limited guerrilla warfare waged by isolated pockets of insurgents. The Burmese army grew in strength and mobility. By 1954, it had secured most major transport routes and isolated Communist guerrillas from sources of supply. The first main-force offensive against Karen strongholds in eastern Burma resulted in capture of the rebel capital Papun (March 27, 1955). The government began offering amnesty and land to insurgents. Although some 38,000 Communist, Karen, and Mon guerrillas surrendered by 1958, the amnesty policy antagonized Burmese army officers. In September, 1958, Colonel Ne Win led a coup against U Nu, who formally resigned in favor of Ne Win in October.

Aftermath

Armed attacks by Communist, Karen, and Mon bands declined notably after 1958. Insurgent leaders were imprisoned, and military officers dominated both local and national politics.

Milestones in the Burmese Civil Wars of 1948–1958

Bibliography

Crozier, L.A. Mawchi: Mining, War, and Insurgency in Burma. Queensland, Australia: Griffith University, 1994.

Lintner, Bertil. Burma in Revolt: Opium and Insurgency Since 1948. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1994.

Smith, Martin. Burma: Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity. London: Zed Books, 1991.