RESEARCH STARTER

Jewish-African American Relations

Jewish-African American relations have experienced a complex and evolving dynamic throughout history, particularly characterized by periods of both cooperation and conflict. Following World War II, Jewish and African American leaders established strong ties, often collaborating in civil rights efforts and advocating for social justice. Their shared experiences of marginalization and commitment to equality, especially during the Civil Rights Movement, fostered significant alliances, with notable Jewish involvement in organizations like the NAACP.

However, this camaraderie was not a given historically. Earlier interactions were limited, with tensions arising during economic hardships, such as the Great Depression, where competition over resources sometimes strained relationships. The rise of the Black Power movement in the 1960s introduced new challenges, as some African American leaders adopted anti-white rhetoric that affected Jewish community sentiments. Events following the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., created further rifts, particularly in urban areas where Jews faced losses during civil unrest.

In the subsequent decades, tensions persisted, highlighted by incidents like the Crown Heights riots of the early 1990s and controversial remarks from public figures that exacerbated divisions. Despite these challenges, both groups retained liberal political orientations and shared urban spaces, which continued to provide opportunities for dialogue and potential cooperation. As the late 20th century unfolded, the diverging political interests—driven by differing priorities and perceptions—reflected the ongoing complexity of Jewish-African American relations, underscoring a history rich with both collaboration and contention.

Full Article

SIGNIFICANCE: When relations between Jewish people and African Americans were good, both groups dramatically advanced the cause of civil rights. Their joint efforts helped bring about the end of legal segregation.

Although the leaders of the African American and Jewish communities enjoyed undeniably good relations in the thirty years after World War II, their friendship was not the historical norm. The periods before and after these years of closeness and cooperation were marked by ambivalence. The relationship between the two communities has varied across time, depending upon economic developments, geographical proximity, and the presence of other ethnic groups.

Early US History

African and Jewish people both arrived in North America during the early periods of US history, though their interactions were initially limited. While most Africans were enslaved on plantations, Jewish participation in enslavement varied by region and was generally proportionate to their overall population. In Charleston, South Carolina, for instance, estimates indicate that 83 percent of Jewish households and 87 percent of Christian households enslaved people in 1830. Nationwide, approximately 40 percent of Jewish households participated in enslavement. Like their White non-Jewish neighbors, Jewish attitudes toward enslavement were divided, with some opposing the practice and others supporting it.

More significant interactions between African Americans and Jewish people began to increase in the mid-nineteenth century, primarily in southern and border-state towns where freed African Americans lived alongside small communities of Central European Jewish immigrants. This contact grew significantly in Northern urban centers during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Jewish merchants were among the first people willing to trade with the formerly enslaved people, though these interactions often involved economic tensions. Both groups shared a sense of being outsiders, a strong attachment to the Hebrew Bible and its message of freedom for enslaved people, and support for Abraham Lincoln and the liberal Republican Party during the Civil War (1861–1865).

Turn of the Century

Large-scale Jewish immigration, largely from Eastern Europe, did not start until the mid-1880s. They came to the United States to escape legal discrimination, religious persecution, pogroms, and dire poverty. Very few of them had experienced any contact with Black people; however, they firmly believed in equality and the rights of the workers, the oppressed, and the poor. Therefore, they were sympathetic to the plight of the African Americans, many of whom had moved from the rural South to northern cities to escape similar problems.

Depression and World War II

During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the Jewish and African American communities came into contact in large industrial cities, but relations were mixed. Both groups shared poverty, persecution and liberal Democratic affiliation. However, as some of the Jewish people began to prosper, conflict ensued. Many Jewish people went into business for themselves, partly because of prejudice against them in the workforce. Because they had limited resources, they opened small stores and later bought small apartment buildings in their urban neighborhoods. Normal shopkeeper-customer and landlord-tenant conflicts developed with African American neighbors, intensified by the racial and ethnic differences.

During World War II, the events in Germany provided a common enemy for Jewish people and African Americans, but that did not eliminate problems. Nazism was not a salient issue for most African Americans. One of the serious rifts between the two groups involved a charismatic member of the Nation of Islam, Sufi Abdul Hamid, who built a reputation for himself partly by insulting Jewish people and their religion.

Post-World War II

World War II and its aftermath provided opportunities for both groups. African Americans, still fleeing the South, moved into the neighborhoods evacuated by Jewish people. A decline in public anti-Semitism, combined with higher education, allowed Jewish people to move from blue-collar to white-collar jobs and to escape the inner-city ghettos. Many Jewish people who went to college were exposed to and moved by the plight of African Americans.

Early in the twentieth century, Jewish people had formed a number of organizations, such as the Anti-Defamation League, to protect their rights. Several Jewish people worked with African American leaders to help them bolster parallel institutions to protect Black people’s rights, including the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), which had a significant Jewish presence both in funding and in legal staffing.

These civil rights organizations grew in number and in strength, especially after the sit-ins in the South during the early 1960s. The NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, later headed by Jack Greenberg, took the lead in prosecuting the civil rights cases that broke down the legal support for segregation. In the most famous case, Brown v. Board of Education (1954), a number of Jewish defense organizations acted as supporting counsel and argued, along with Thurgood Marshall, before the US Supreme Court against the segregation laws. It was this cooperation at the top that led to the golden age of Jewish-African American relations.

Cooperation and support by Jewish people pervaded the Civil Rights movement. Jewish people offered much stronger support for racial equality than did other White Americans. Jewish people constituted more than one-third of all the northern Freedom Riders who went to the South to help organize and register African American citizens to vote. The 1964 murder of three civil rights activists—Michael Schwerner and Andrew Goodman, who were Jewish, and James Chaney, an African American—was one of the defining moments of the civil rights movement.

The Mid-1960s and Black Power

The bond between Jewish and African Americans began to unglue with the increasingly anti-White and anti-Semitic rhetoric of young Black radicals such as Stokely Carmichael (later Kwame Toure) of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. Leaders of the nascent Black Power movement wanted complete control over their destiny; they wanted to run their own organizations and to live by their own cultural standards, not those of White Europeans. The role of Jewish people in these movements, therefore, began to diminish.

As the Black Power movement grew, several radical African Americans started attacking Israel, hastening the departure of most Jewish people. Many young secular Jewish people grew up with a strong affinity for civil rights but were ambivalent or had weak feelings toward Israel. However, due to growing tensions in the Middle East and the threat to Israel's existence in 1967, American Jewish people began to show increased support for Israel. As the younger generation of Jewish left the Civil Rights movement in response to the rise of Black power, they turned their attention to issues involving Israeli and Russian Jewish people, and their sense of themselves as an ethnic group increased.

Although Carmichael was critical of the Jewish people, civil rights activist Martin Luther King, Jr., had many friends among Jewish leaders. King was a hero not just to African Americans but also to Jewish Americans, in part because of his intolerance for anti-Semitism and his support for Israel. King’s death accelerated the split between African Americans and Jewish Americans. In the riots following his assassination, a disproportionate amount of loss was sustained by Jewish shopkeepers and landlords who had stayed in the ghetto because they could not afford to relocate. The remaining Jewish people left quickly.

At the end of the 1960s, a series of hostile confrontations occurred, many in New York, where unionized Jewish teachers battled local African American leaders. Disputes also arose over a proposed housing project in a middle-class Jewish neighborhood and among white-collar municipal employees over jobs and promotions. After the 1970s, many of these inner-city conflicts subsided as Jewish people moved to the suburbs. For example, in the Los Angeles riots of 1992, friction arose between African Americans and Koreans, not Jewish people. In other cities, conflicts involved African Americans and Latinos rather than Jewish people.

1980s and 1990s

Although friction between the two groups was more limited, it did not disappear. Black leader Jesse Jackson angered Jewish citizens during his 1984 bid for the presidency by referring to New York as “Hymietown” (“hymie” is a derogatory term used to describe Jewish people) and courting Arab leader Yasser Arafat. On college campuses, a conflict of opinion arose over affirmative action. Jewish citizens, who had suffered from quotas that limited their enrollment in higher education, tended to oppose affirmative action, although perhaps less strongly than many White Americans. In 1991, in the racially mixed community of Crown Heights, Brooklyn, a car driven by a Hasidic Jew hit and killed an African American boy and injured his companion. In the rioting that followed, a Hasidic Jewish man was killed.

An ongoing source of tension in the 1980s and 1990s was Louis Farrakhan, a dynamic and media-sensitive member of the Nation of Islam with a passionate hatred of Jewish people and Judaism, which he called a “gutter religion.” For many Jewish individuals, he was the devil incarnate; for many African Americans, he was an articulate spokesperson for Black self-determinism and for self-respect and dignity.

The ties between the two groups were never completely severed, however. Both groups tended to be liberal and Democratic, so they had a common political predisposition. They typically lived in the same metropolitan areas and had a partial common history. Nonetheless, at the end of the twentieth century, their political interests diverged. African Americans were mainly focused on the large numbers of Black people in what seemed like a permanent American underclass; many Jewish people were worried about overseas Jewish people and their declining numbers due to widespread intermarriage and low birthrates. To many African Americans, Jewish Americans were just “White folks”; to many Jewish people, African Americans were ungrateful for the help that Jewish people had given them in the past.

Modern Issues

Black-Jewish relations in the United States continued to be filled with tensions in the 2020s. Sources of tension included conflicting views on Israel and Palestine in light of the conflict that began in October 2023, when Hamas launched an attack on Israel. However, several initiatives, including the Black-Jewish Dialogue, are fostering meaningful conversations between the two communities in order to discuss shared fears, experiences, and aspirations. For instance, the Jewish Federation of Philadelphia and the American Jewish Committee’s Atlanta branch collaborated on Black and Jewish initiatives against hate and for reconciliation in cities across the country. Further, in 2023, the American Jewish Committee, the National Urban League, and the Anti-Defamation League joined forces to relaunch the bipartisan Congressional Caucus on Black-Jewish Relations. The caucus aimed to raise awareness and advocate for legislation that would strengthen the relationship between the two groups based on shared issues, such as the rise of racism and antisemitism.


Bibliography

"American Jewish Committee Helps Relaunch Congressional Black-Jewish Caucus." American Jewish Committee, 13 July 2023, www.ajc.org/news/american-jewish-committee-helps-relaunch-congressional-black-jewish-caucus. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

"Atlanta Black/Jewish Coalition." AJC, ajc.org/atlanta/BlackJewishCoalition. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

"Black-Jewish 'Grand Alliance': Civil Rights History." NPR, 28 Mar. 2024, npr.org/2024/03/28/1239289512/black-jewish-grand-alliance-civil-rights-history. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

"Black-Jewish Relations: Returning to a Shared Legacy." Manhattan Institute, 20 June 2024, manhattan.institute/event/black-jewish-relations-returning-shared-legacy. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

Brackman, Harold. "Black-Jewish Relations at a Crossroads." Jerusalem Post, 16 May 2013, www.jpost.com/magazine/opinion/black-jewish-relations-at-a-crossroads-313374. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

Brown, L. "Coalitions for Change: African American and Jewish Partnerships in Modern Activism." American Sociological Review, vol. 89, no. 1, 2022, pp. 78-95.

Diner, Hasia R. In the Almost Promised Land: American Jews and Blacks, 1919-1935. Johns Hopkins UP, 1997.

Friedman, Murray. What Went Wrong: The Creation and Collapse of the Black-Jewish Alliance. Free Press, 1995.

"From Swatiska to Jim Crow Transcript." PBS, 21 Feb. 2023, pbs.org/wnet/exploring-hate/2023/02/21/from-swastika-to-jim-crow-transcript. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

Greenberg, Cheryl Lynn. Troubling the Waters: Black-Jewish Relations in the American Century. Princeton UP, 2010.

"A Model of Black-Jewish Relations Grows in Philadelphia." Jewish Federations, 14 June 2024, www.jewishfederations.org/blog/all/a-model-of-black-jewish-relations-grows-in-philadelphia-469749. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

"One America - National Center on Black-Jewish Relations." Clinton White House Archives, clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov/Initiatives/OneAmerica/Practices/pp_19980804.3739.html. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

Peress, Naim. "The Jewish Slaveholders." The Jerusalem Post, 11 Apr. 2019, jpost.com/jerusalem-report/the-jewish-slaveholders-586544. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

Schwartz, Dean. "Black and Jewish Leaders Fought for Civil Rights. Now the Relationship Is Fragmented." NPR, 23 Feb. 2024, www.npr.org/2024/02/23/1233355118/black-and-jewish-leaders-fought-for-civil-rights-now-the-relationship-is-fragmen. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

Siliezar, Juan. "Black-Jewish Talk Series Opens up with a Conversation." Harvard Gazette, 22 Feb. 2021, news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2021/02/black-jewish-talk-series-opens-up-with-a-conversation. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

A Slice of the Community. "Black-Jewish Relations: Controversy, History and Allyship." PBS, 12 Feb. 2023, pbs.org/video/black-jewish-relations-controversy-history-and-allyship-qv6etc. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

Smith, J. "Rebuilding Bridges: Black-Jewish Relations in 21st Century America." Journal of Ethnic Studies, vol. 45, no. 2, 2023, pp. 112-28.

Tova, Leonard. "Did North Carolina Jews Own Slaves?" Jewish Heritage North Carolina, 14 Feb. 2022, jewishnc.org/did-north-carolina-jews-own-slaves. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

Full Article

SIGNIFICANCE: When relations between Jewish people and African Americans were good, both groups dramatically advanced the cause of civil rights. Their joint efforts helped bring about the end of legal segregation.

Although the leaders of the African American and Jewish communities enjoyed undeniably good relations in the thirty years after World War II, their friendship was not the historical norm. The periods before and after these years of closeness and cooperation were marked by ambivalence. The relationship between the two communities has varied across time, depending upon economic developments, geographical proximity, and the presence of other ethnic groups.

Early US History

African and Jewish people both arrived in North America during the early periods of US history, though their interactions were initially limited. While most Africans were enslaved on plantations, Jewish participation in enslavement varied by region and was generally proportionate to their overall population. In Charleston, South Carolina, for instance, estimates indicate that 83 percent of Jewish households and 87 percent of Christian households enslaved people in 1830. Nationwide, approximately 40 percent of Jewish households participated in enslavement. Like their White non-Jewish neighbors, Jewish attitudes toward enslavement were divided, with some opposing the practice and others supporting it.

More significant interactions between African Americans and Jewish people began to increase in the mid-nineteenth century, primarily in southern and border-state towns where freed African Americans lived alongside small communities of Central European Jewish immigrants. This contact grew significantly in Northern urban centers during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Jewish merchants were among the first people willing to trade with the formerly enslaved people, though these interactions often involved economic tensions. Both groups shared a sense of being outsiders, a strong attachment to the Hebrew Bible and its message of freedom for enslaved people, and support for Abraham Lincoln and the liberal Republican Party during the Civil War (1861–1865).

Turn of the Century

Large-scale Jewish immigration, largely from Eastern Europe, did not start until the mid-1880s. They came to the United States to escape legal discrimination, religious persecution, pogroms, and dire poverty. Very few of them had experienced any contact with Black people; however, they firmly believed in equality and the rights of the workers, the oppressed, and the poor. Therefore, they were sympathetic to the plight of the African Americans, many of whom had moved from the rural South to northern cities to escape similar problems.

Depression and World War II

During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the Jewish and African American communities came into contact in large industrial cities, but relations were mixed. Both groups shared poverty, persecution and liberal Democratic affiliation. However, as some of the Jewish people began to prosper, conflict ensued. Many Jewish people went into business for themselves, partly because of prejudice against them in the workforce. Because they had limited resources, they opened small stores and later bought small apartment buildings in their urban neighborhoods. Normal shopkeeper-customer and landlord-tenant conflicts developed with African American neighbors, intensified by the racial and ethnic differences.

During World War II, the events in Germany provided a common enemy for Jewish people and African Americans, but that did not eliminate problems. Nazism was not a salient issue for most African Americans. One of the serious rifts between the two groups involved a charismatic member of the Nation of Islam, Sufi Abdul Hamid, who built a reputation for himself partly by insulting Jewish people and their religion.

Post-World War II

World War II and its aftermath provided opportunities for both groups. African Americans, still fleeing the South, moved into the neighborhoods evacuated by Jewish people. A decline in public anti-Semitism, combined with higher education, allowed Jewish people to move from blue-collar to white-collar jobs and to escape the inner-city ghettos. Many Jewish people who went to college were exposed to and moved by the plight of African Americans.

Early in the twentieth century, Jewish people had formed a number of organizations, such as the Anti-Defamation League, to protect their rights. Several Jewish people worked with African American leaders to help them bolster parallel institutions to protect Black people’s rights, including the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), which had a significant Jewish presence both in funding and in legal staffing.

These civil rights organizations grew in number and in strength, especially after the sit-ins in the South during the early 1960s. The NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, later headed by Jack Greenberg, took the lead in prosecuting the civil rights cases that broke down the legal support for segregation. In the most famous case, Brown v. Board of Education (1954), a number of Jewish defense organizations acted as supporting counsel and argued, along with Thurgood Marshall, before the US Supreme Court against the segregation laws. It was this cooperation at the top that led to the golden age of Jewish-African American relations.

Cooperation and support by Jewish people pervaded the Civil Rights movement. Jewish people offered much stronger support for racial equality than did other White Americans. Jewish people constituted more than one-third of all the northern Freedom Riders who went to the South to help organize and register African American citizens to vote. The 1964 murder of three civil rights activists—Michael Schwerner and Andrew Goodman, who were Jewish, and James Chaney, an African American—was one of the defining moments of the civil rights movement.

The Mid-1960s and Black Power

The bond between Jewish and African Americans began to unglue with the increasingly anti-White and anti-Semitic rhetoric of young Black radicals such as Stokely Carmichael (later Kwame Toure) of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. Leaders of the nascent Black Power movement wanted complete control over their destiny; they wanted to run their own organizations and to live by their own cultural standards, not those of White Europeans. The role of Jewish people in these movements, therefore, began to diminish.

As the Black Power movement grew, several radical African Americans started attacking Israel, hastening the departure of most Jewish people. Many young secular Jewish people grew up with a strong affinity for civil rights but were ambivalent or had weak feelings toward Israel. However, due to growing tensions in the Middle East and the threat to Israel's existence in 1967, American Jewish people began to show increased support for Israel. As the younger generation of Jewish left the Civil Rights movement in response to the rise of Black power, they turned their attention to issues involving Israeli and Russian Jewish people, and their sense of themselves as an ethnic group increased.

Although Carmichael was critical of the Jewish people, civil rights activist Martin Luther King, Jr., had many friends among Jewish leaders. King was a hero not just to African Americans but also to Jewish Americans, in part because of his intolerance for anti-Semitism and his support for Israel. King’s death accelerated the split between African Americans and Jewish Americans. In the riots following his assassination, a disproportionate amount of loss was sustained by Jewish shopkeepers and landlords who had stayed in the ghetto because they could not afford to relocate. The remaining Jewish people left quickly.

At the end of the 1960s, a series of hostile confrontations occurred, many in New York, where unionized Jewish teachers battled local African American leaders. Disputes also arose over a proposed housing project in a middle-class Jewish neighborhood and among white-collar municipal employees over jobs and promotions. After the 1970s, many of these inner-city conflicts subsided as Jewish people moved to the suburbs. For example, in the Los Angeles riots of 1992, friction arose between African Americans and Koreans, not Jewish people. In other cities, conflicts involved African Americans and Latinos rather than Jewish people.

1980s and 1990s

Although friction between the two groups was more limited, it did not disappear. Black leader Jesse Jackson angered Jewish citizens during his 1984 bid for the presidency by referring to New York as “Hymietown” (“hymie” is a derogatory term used to describe Jewish people) and courting Arab leader Yasser Arafat. On college campuses, a conflict of opinion arose over affirmative action. Jewish citizens, who had suffered from quotas that limited their enrollment in higher education, tended to oppose affirmative action, although perhaps less strongly than many White Americans. In 1991, in the racially mixed community of Crown Heights, Brooklyn, a car driven by a Hasidic Jew hit and killed an African American boy and injured his companion. In the rioting that followed, a Hasidic Jewish man was killed.

An ongoing source of tension in the 1980s and 1990s was Louis Farrakhan, a dynamic and media-sensitive member of the Nation of Islam with a passionate hatred of Jewish people and Judaism, which he called a “gutter religion.” For many Jewish individuals, he was the devil incarnate; for many African Americans, he was an articulate spokesperson for Black self-determinism and for self-respect and dignity.

The ties between the two groups were never completely severed, however. Both groups tended to be liberal and Democratic, so they had a common political predisposition. They typically lived in the same metropolitan areas and had a partial common history. Nonetheless, at the end of the twentieth century, their political interests diverged. African Americans were mainly focused on the large numbers of Black people in what seemed like a permanent American underclass; many Jewish people were worried about overseas Jewish people and their declining numbers due to widespread intermarriage and low birthrates. To many African Americans, Jewish Americans were just “White folks”; to many Jewish people, African Americans were ungrateful for the help that Jewish people had given them in the past.

Modern Issues

Black-Jewish relations in the United States continued to be filled with tensions in the 2020s. Sources of tension included conflicting views on Israel and Palestine in light of the conflict that began in October 2023, when Hamas launched an attack on Israel. However, several initiatives, including the Black-Jewish Dialogue, are fostering meaningful conversations between the two communities in order to discuss shared fears, experiences, and aspirations. For instance, the Jewish Federation of Philadelphia and the American Jewish Committee’s Atlanta branch collaborated on Black and Jewish initiatives against hate and for reconciliation in cities across the country. Further, in 2023, the American Jewish Committee, the National Urban League, and the Anti-Defamation League joined forces to relaunch the bipartisan Congressional Caucus on Black-Jewish Relations. The caucus aimed to raise awareness and advocate for legislation that would strengthen the relationship between the two groups based on shared issues, such as the rise of racism and antisemitism.


Bibliography

"American Jewish Committee Helps Relaunch Congressional Black-Jewish Caucus." American Jewish Committee, 13 July 2023, www.ajc.org/news/american-jewish-committee-helps-relaunch-congressional-black-jewish-caucus. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

"Atlanta Black/Jewish Coalition." AJC, ajc.org/atlanta/BlackJewishCoalition. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

"Black-Jewish 'Grand Alliance': Civil Rights History." NPR, 28 Mar. 2024, npr.org/2024/03/28/1239289512/black-jewish-grand-alliance-civil-rights-history. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

"Black-Jewish Relations: Returning to a Shared Legacy." Manhattan Institute, 20 June 2024, manhattan.institute/event/black-jewish-relations-returning-shared-legacy. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

Brackman, Harold. "Black-Jewish Relations at a Crossroads." Jerusalem Post, 16 May 2013, www.jpost.com/magazine/opinion/black-jewish-relations-at-a-crossroads-313374. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

Brown, L. "Coalitions for Change: African American and Jewish Partnerships in Modern Activism." American Sociological Review, vol. 89, no. 1, 2022, pp. 78-95.

Diner, Hasia R. In the Almost Promised Land: American Jews and Blacks, 1919-1935. Johns Hopkins UP, 1997.

Friedman, Murray. What Went Wrong: The Creation and Collapse of the Black-Jewish Alliance. Free Press, 1995.

"From Swatiska to Jim Crow Transcript." PBS, 21 Feb. 2023, pbs.org/wnet/exploring-hate/2023/02/21/from-swastika-to-jim-crow-transcript. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

Greenberg, Cheryl Lynn. Troubling the Waters: Black-Jewish Relations in the American Century. Princeton UP, 2010.

"A Model of Black-Jewish Relations Grows in Philadelphia." Jewish Federations, 14 June 2024, www.jewishfederations.org/blog/all/a-model-of-black-jewish-relations-grows-in-philadelphia-469749. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

"One America - National Center on Black-Jewish Relations." Clinton White House Archives, clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov/Initiatives/OneAmerica/Practices/pp_19980804.3739.html. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

Peress, Naim. "The Jewish Slaveholders." The Jerusalem Post, 11 Apr. 2019, jpost.com/jerusalem-report/the-jewish-slaveholders-586544. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

Schwartz, Dean. "Black and Jewish Leaders Fought for Civil Rights. Now the Relationship Is Fragmented." NPR, 23 Feb. 2024, www.npr.org/2024/02/23/1233355118/black-and-jewish-leaders-fought-for-civil-rights-now-the-relationship-is-fragmen. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

Siliezar, Juan. "Black-Jewish Talk Series Opens up with a Conversation." Harvard Gazette, 22 Feb. 2021, news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2021/02/black-jewish-talk-series-opens-up-with-a-conversation. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

A Slice of the Community. "Black-Jewish Relations: Controversy, History and Allyship." PBS, 12 Feb. 2023, pbs.org/video/black-jewish-relations-controversy-history-and-allyship-qv6etc. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

Smith, J. "Rebuilding Bridges: Black-Jewish Relations in 21st Century America." Journal of Ethnic Studies, vol. 45, no. 2, 2023, pp. 112-28.

Tova, Leonard. "Did North Carolina Jews Own Slaves?" Jewish Heritage North Carolina, 14 Feb. 2022, jewishnc.org/did-north-carolina-jews-own-slaves. Accessed 28 Jan. 2026.

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