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Psychoactive drug

Psychoactive drugs, also known as psychotropic substances, are chemicals that significantly alter an individual's mental state upon ingestion. These substances have been utilized by various cultures for thousands of years, leading to a rich history of both use and regulation. Psychoactive drugs can be classified into five main categories: stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, opioids, and cannabis.

Stimulants, such as caffeine and nicotine, typically enhance mood and energy levels, while depressants like alcohol promote relaxation and sedation. Opioids are primarily pain-relieving substances derived from the opium poppy, known for their potential to induce euphoria but also their risk of addiction. Hallucinogens can lead to altered perceptions and vivid hallucinations, whereas cannabis is unique in its ability to evoke euphoria and sensory changes.

While some psychoactive drugs, such as caffeine, can be consumed safely in moderation, others pose significant health risks, including addiction and potential fatal consequences. The ongoing evolution of drug use has resulted in the emergence of designer drugs, which are synthetic variations that often evade legal restrictions, complicating efforts to regulate their use effectively. Overall, the impact and implications of psychoactive drugs are complex, warranting careful consideration and understanding.

Full Article

Psychoactive drugs are chemicals that affect the mental state of individuals who ingest them. Different drugs cause various effects. Humans have harvested, created, and used psychoactive drugs for thousands of years. Some drugs are more dangerous than others. Many are controlled or illegal.

Most psychoactive drugs fit into one of five categories: depressants, opioids, stimulants, hallucinogens, and cannabis. Stimulants generally cause feelings of excitement, including nicotine and caffeine. Depressants generally cause feelings of relaxation and reduced tension. The most commonly used depressant is alcohol. Opioids are based on the opium plant, but semi-synthetic and synthetic opioids are also available, and are typically powerful painkillers. Hallucinogens cause vivid auditory and visual hallucinations, as well as feelings of dissociation. Cannabis causes feelings of euphoria and changes in sensory perception. Certain classifications such as the Drug Recognition Expert (DRE) framework uses seven categories, with dissociative anesthetics (pain inhibitors) and inhalants (a range of mind-altering substances) as the two other categories. A few further categories include entactogens and nootropics—drugs that may enhance cognitive performance or emotional empathy. Some psychoactive drugs exhibit multiple effects and may not fall neatly into one category. For example, ketamine is both a hallucinogen and a dissociative anesthetic but is categorized as a dissociative anesthetic with hallucinogenic effects, while MDMA (ecstasy) combines stimulant and entactogenic effects.

Some psychoactive drugs have accepted medical uses when used at approved doses under appropriate supervision. Other drugs are extremely addictive or unpredictable. Such drugs can cause heart palpitations, coma, or death. Synthetic opioids such as fentanyl significantly contributed to overdose deaths in North America in the 2020s.

Background

Throughout most of human history, humans have used drugs and alcohol to attain an intoxicated state. A Neanderthal burial site from fifty thousand years ago reportedly contains elements of herbal stimulants made from ephedra, possibly even indicating medicinal plant use, though the interpretation remains debated. Some evidence also suggests that the first agriculture, which occurred around 10,000 BCE, included psychoactive plants. These include tobacco, cannabis, and mandrake plants. One burial site in Spain, dating from roughly 4,200 BCE, contained seed pods from the opium poppy plant, suggesting that the people then understood or used the properties of the plant.

Soon afterward, the Ancient Egyptians and Ancient Sumerians developed processes to create early beer and wine. These processes spread throughout the Mediterranean, with bronze-age vessels showing evidence of once holding alcohol. Ancient Asian civilizations in the year 3000 BCE also cultivated cannabis, while coca plants were domesticated in South America by Indigenous cultures of the Andes. Psychoactive substances like betel nut, kava, and psilocybin mushrooms were also used in religious and healing rituals in regions of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas.

The popularity of alcohol and other psychoactive substances continued to increase throughout the ages. Europeans brought the tobacco plant back from the New World, and smoking tobacco became popular throughout the continent. During the seventeenth century, establishments dedicated to serving coffee, which contains the stimulant caffeine, spread throughout England.

During the nineteenth century, chemists began to isolate psychoactive drugs from naturally occurring plants. Scientists developed morphine from opium in 1805, isolated caffeine from coffee in 1819, and isolated cocaine from coca leaves in 1859. This allowed scientists to create more concentrated, and thus, more powerful, psychoactive substances.

During the early twentieth century, Western governments began to limit the use of psychoactive drugs. In the United States, cocaine and opiates were made illegal for recreational use. In 1920, the United States banned the recreational use of alcohol. However, despite these restrictions, the use of psychoactive substances continued. In 1933, the United States repealed prohibition, making recreational use of alcohol legal again.

In 1938, Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann became the first person to synthesize the powerful psychedelic drug lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) at the pharmaceutical company Sandoz. By the late 1960s, LSD had become a controversial recreational drug popular throughout the United States and Europe. Other manufactured psychedelic drugs emerged at different periods; for example, MDMA was first synthesized in 1912, while ketamine was synthesized in the 1960s.

In the early twenty-first century, scientific interest in psychedelics reemerged, leading to clinical trials investigating psilocybin, MDMA, and ketamine for treatment-resistant depression, PTSD, and anxiety. Some of these trials have received breakthrough therapy status from the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), marking a shift in the medical community’s view of these drugs. The FDA has also approved esketamine, a ketamine-derived drug, for treatment-resistant depression.

Overview

Psychoactive drugs, also called psychotropic substances, are chemical substances that change the individual's mental state. In many cases, the changes induced by psychoactive substances are mild, as when an individual ingests a small to moderate dose of caffeine. However, other drugs, such as psychedelic substances, may result in sudden and drastic changes to individuals’ mindsets. These effects occur due to interactions with neurotransmitter systems in the brain, including dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, GABA, and endorphins. Different classes of psychoactive drugs target different pathways, leading to varied physical and psychological effects.

Most psychoactive drugs fall into one of five categories: stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, opioids, and cannabis, although some drugs produce effects that span multiple categories and a few classifications have a couple of additional categories such as inhalants and dissociatives. Stimulants include drugs that increase energy, excitability, alertness, and mood. Most stimulants tend to increase blood pressure and heart rate. Some stimulants, such as caffeine and nicotine, are legal and socially accepted throughout most of the world. Caffeine is commonly found in coffee and other beverages, while nicotine is found in tobacco and various vaporized substances. Other stimulants, such as cocaine and amphetamines, are dangerous and illegal. Ingesting excessive amounts of stimulants can sometimes induce chest pain, heart palpitations, hallucinations, and death. Stimulants like modafinil and methylphenidate (Ritalin) are legally prescribed to treat attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and sleep disorders but are sometimes misused for cognitive enhancement.

Depressant psychoactive drugs induce feelings of relaxation and reduce anxiety. The most commonly used depressant is alcohol, which is recreationally used for its depressive tendencies across the world. However, the depressant classification also includes tranquilizers such as barbiturates. Excessive use of depressants can result in shallow breathing, a weak pulse, coma, and death. Benzodiazepines (such as diazepam and alprazolam) are also depressants prescribed for anxiety and insomnia but carry risks of dependence and overdose, especially when combined with opioids.

Hallucinogens include drugs that can alter perception, mood, and sense of self, possibly resulting in erratic behavior, paranoia, depersonalization, delusions, and visual or auditory hallucinations. They include LSD, peyote, and many other drugs. Excessive use of hallucinogens may lead to difficulty in thinking, difficulty in speaking, and depression, and cause serious psychological distress, dangerous behavior, or medical complications in some cases. However, hallucinogen use rarely induces medical emergencies like depressants and stimulants.

Opioids are derived from the opium poppy, which is used to make morphine. Most opioids are powerful painkillers, such as oxycodone and codeine. However, in addition to their pain-relieving qualities, opioids cause feelings of euphoria and drowsiness. Most opioid-based painkillers are extremely addictive and are prescribed carefully by doctors. If used excessively, opioids can cause nausea, convulsion, coma, and death. The rise of synthetic opioids like fentanyl dramatically increased global overdose deaths. Fentanyl is often mixed with other substances, which makes it difficult to detect, increasing the risk of accidental death.

Cannabis is sometimes classified in its own category, but it exhibits stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogenic properties depending on dosage, strain, and individual response. When used, it induces appetite changes, impaired memory, reduced tension, and feelings of euphoria. It can also cause changes in blood pressure, anxiety, and reduced physical coordination. Cannabis also contains cannabidiol (CBD), compound that does not produce any intoxicating “high” and that some assert has therapeutic applications. Medical cannabis is legal in many countries, and recreational use is legal in parts of North America, South America, Europe, and Asia. Its legal status varies by country and depends on its source and intended use.

Some drugs are specifically manufactured to skirt legal requirements. These drugs, often called designer drugs, can be based on drugs from any category, and some are a cocktail of drugs from multiple categories. These psychoactive drugs include spice, bath salts, and many other chemicals. Many variations of these drugs are rapidly manufactured as older variants are outlawed, making designer drugs extremely difficult for law enforcement agencies and public health organizations to manage and regulate. These substances are unpredictable, poorly studied, and carry high risks of toxicity, psychosis, and overdose.

In the 2020s, scientists actively studied psychedelic compounds such as psilocybin, MDMA, ketamine, and LSD for their potential therapeutic use. The US military launched a $9.8 million clinical trial using MDMA to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in service members, while other studies explored the use of psilocybin to relieve phantom limb pain, which affects up to 80 percent of amputees. However, in 2024 the FDA declined to approve MDMA for PTSD and requested additional evidence. Neuroscientific research indicates that psilocybin temporarily disrupts brain networks associated with self-perception and default mode processing.

In March 2024, the FDA granted breakthrough therapy designation to LSD for the psychedelic-assisted treatment of generalized anxiety disorder and expanded approval for esketamine (Spravato) as a treatment for adults with treatment-resistant depression, with the FDA labeling that the drug is for treatment-resistant depression in adults as monotherapy or in conjunction with an oral antidepressant. Compounds like RE-104 (a short-acting psychedelic) have been tested for postpartum and treatment-resistant depression. Similarly, the pharmaceutical company Tactogen began developing medications modeled after MDMA that aim to retain therapeutic benefits while minimizing adverse effects.


Bibliography

Cherian, Kirsten N., et al. “Magnesium-Ibogaine Therapy in Veterans with Traumatic Brain Injuries.” Nature Medicine, vol. 30, no. 2, 2024, pp. 373–81, doi:10.1038/s41591-023-02705-w. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Daly, Noah. "DOD Commits $9.8 Million to Study Psychedelics for Active-Duty Troops." Military Times, 17 Mar. 2025, www.militarytimes.com/news/your-military/2025/03/17/dod-commits-98-million-to-study-psychedelics-for-active-duty-troops. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

“Drugs (Psychoactive).” World Health Organization, www.who.int/health-topics/drugs-psychoactive. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

“Final Summary Minutes of the Psychopharmacologic Drugs Advisory Committee Meeting.” Food and Drug Administration Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, 4 June 2024, www.fda.gov/media/180463/download. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Hartney, Elizabeth. “What Are Psychedelic Drugs?” VeryWellMind, 29 June 2023, www.verywellmind.com/types-of-psychedelic-drug-22073. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

“Midomafetamine Capsules (NDA 215455) Psychopharmacologic Drugs Advisory Committee June 4, 2024.” U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 4 June 2024, www.fda.gov/media/179061/download. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

“Methamphetamine.” National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), 2 Nov. 2024, nida.nih.gov/research-topics/methamphetamine. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

“Psilocybin for Mental Health and Addiction: What You Need To Know.” National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, www.nccih.nih.gov/health/psilocybin-for-mental-health-and-addiction-what-you-need-to-know. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

“Psychoactive Drugs Tobacco, Alcohol, and Illicit Substances.” Green Facts, www.greenfacts.org/en/psychoactive-drugs/index.htm. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

“Psychoactive Substance.” National Cancer Institute, www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/796898. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Sederer, Lloyd. “9 Things That Matter about Psychoactive Drugs.” Scientific American, 8 May, 2018, blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/9-things-that-matter-about-psychoactive-drugs. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Spravato (esketamine) Prescribing Information.” U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jan. 2025, www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2025/211243s019lbl.pdf. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026

“Timeline: Drugs and Alcohol.” New Scientist, 2006, www.newscientist.com/article/dn9924-timeline-drugs-and-alcohol. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Understanding the Opioid Overdose Epidemic.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 9 June 2025, www.cdc.gov/overdose-prevention/about/understanding-the-opioid-overdose-epidemic.html. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

“World Drug Report 2023.” United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2023, www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/world-drug-report-2023.html. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Full Article

Psychoactive drugs are chemicals that affect the mental state of individuals who ingest them. Different drugs cause various effects. Humans have harvested, created, and used psychoactive drugs for thousands of years. Some drugs are more dangerous than others. Many are controlled or illegal.

Most psychoactive drugs fit into one of five categories: depressants, opioids, stimulants, hallucinogens, and cannabis. Stimulants generally cause feelings of excitement, including nicotine and caffeine. Depressants generally cause feelings of relaxation and reduced tension. The most commonly used depressant is alcohol. Opioids are based on the opium plant, but semi-synthetic and synthetic opioids are also available, and are typically powerful painkillers. Hallucinogens cause vivid auditory and visual hallucinations, as well as feelings of dissociation. Cannabis causes feelings of euphoria and changes in sensory perception. Certain classifications such as the Drug Recognition Expert (DRE) framework uses seven categories, with dissociative anesthetics (pain inhibitors) and inhalants (a range of mind-altering substances) as the two other categories. A few further categories include entactogens and nootropics—drugs that may enhance cognitive performance or emotional empathy. Some psychoactive drugs exhibit multiple effects and may not fall neatly into one category. For example, ketamine is both a hallucinogen and a dissociative anesthetic but is categorized as a dissociative anesthetic with hallucinogenic effects, while MDMA (ecstasy) combines stimulant and entactogenic effects.

Some psychoactive drugs have accepted medical uses when used at approved doses under appropriate supervision. Other drugs are extremely addictive or unpredictable. Such drugs can cause heart palpitations, coma, or death. Synthetic opioids such as fentanyl significantly contributed to overdose deaths in North America in the 2020s.

Background

Throughout most of human history, humans have used drugs and alcohol to attain an intoxicated state. A Neanderthal burial site from fifty thousand years ago reportedly contains elements of herbal stimulants made from ephedra, possibly even indicating medicinal plant use, though the interpretation remains debated. Some evidence also suggests that the first agriculture, which occurred around 10,000 BCE, included psychoactive plants. These include tobacco, cannabis, and mandrake plants. One burial site in Spain, dating from roughly 4,200 BCE, contained seed pods from the opium poppy plant, suggesting that the people then understood or used the properties of the plant.

Soon afterward, the Ancient Egyptians and Ancient Sumerians developed processes to create early beer and wine. These processes spread throughout the Mediterranean, with bronze-age vessels showing evidence of once holding alcohol. Ancient Asian civilizations in the year 3000 BCE also cultivated cannabis, while coca plants were domesticated in South America by Indigenous cultures of the Andes. Psychoactive substances like betel nut, kava, and psilocybin mushrooms were also used in religious and healing rituals in regions of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas.

The popularity of alcohol and other psychoactive substances continued to increase throughout the ages. Europeans brought the tobacco plant back from the New World, and smoking tobacco became popular throughout the continent. During the seventeenth century, establishments dedicated to serving coffee, which contains the stimulant caffeine, spread throughout England.

During the nineteenth century, chemists began to isolate psychoactive drugs from naturally occurring plants. Scientists developed morphine from opium in 1805, isolated caffeine from coffee in 1819, and isolated cocaine from coca leaves in 1859. This allowed scientists to create more concentrated, and thus, more powerful, psychoactive substances.

During the early twentieth century, Western governments began to limit the use of psychoactive drugs. In the United States, cocaine and opiates were made illegal for recreational use. In 1920, the United States banned the recreational use of alcohol. However, despite these restrictions, the use of psychoactive substances continued. In 1933, the United States repealed prohibition, making recreational use of alcohol legal again.

In 1938, Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann became the first person to synthesize the powerful psychedelic drug lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) at the pharmaceutical company Sandoz. By the late 1960s, LSD had become a controversial recreational drug popular throughout the United States and Europe. Other manufactured psychedelic drugs emerged at different periods; for example, MDMA was first synthesized in 1912, while ketamine was synthesized in the 1960s.

In the early twenty-first century, scientific interest in psychedelics reemerged, leading to clinical trials investigating psilocybin, MDMA, and ketamine for treatment-resistant depression, PTSD, and anxiety. Some of these trials have received breakthrough therapy status from the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), marking a shift in the medical community’s view of these drugs. The FDA has also approved esketamine, a ketamine-derived drug, for treatment-resistant depression.

Overview

Psychoactive drugs, also called psychotropic substances, are chemical substances that change the individual's mental state. In many cases, the changes induced by psychoactive substances are mild, as when an individual ingests a small to moderate dose of caffeine. However, other drugs, such as psychedelic substances, may result in sudden and drastic changes to individuals’ mindsets. These effects occur due to interactions with neurotransmitter systems in the brain, including dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, GABA, and endorphins. Different classes of psychoactive drugs target different pathways, leading to varied physical and psychological effects.

Most psychoactive drugs fall into one of five categories: stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, opioids, and cannabis, although some drugs produce effects that span multiple categories and a few classifications have a couple of additional categories such as inhalants and dissociatives. Stimulants include drugs that increase energy, excitability, alertness, and mood. Most stimulants tend to increase blood pressure and heart rate. Some stimulants, such as caffeine and nicotine, are legal and socially accepted throughout most of the world. Caffeine is commonly found in coffee and other beverages, while nicotine is found in tobacco and various vaporized substances. Other stimulants, such as cocaine and amphetamines, are dangerous and illegal. Ingesting excessive amounts of stimulants can sometimes induce chest pain, heart palpitations, hallucinations, and death. Stimulants like modafinil and methylphenidate (Ritalin) are legally prescribed to treat attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and sleep disorders but are sometimes misused for cognitive enhancement.

Depressant psychoactive drugs induce feelings of relaxation and reduce anxiety. The most commonly used depressant is alcohol, which is recreationally used for its depressive tendencies across the world. However, the depressant classification also includes tranquilizers such as barbiturates. Excessive use of depressants can result in shallow breathing, a weak pulse, coma, and death. Benzodiazepines (such as diazepam and alprazolam) are also depressants prescribed for anxiety and insomnia but carry risks of dependence and overdose, especially when combined with opioids.

Hallucinogens include drugs that can alter perception, mood, and sense of self, possibly resulting in erratic behavior, paranoia, depersonalization, delusions, and visual or auditory hallucinations. They include LSD, peyote, and many other drugs. Excessive use of hallucinogens may lead to difficulty in thinking, difficulty in speaking, and depression, and cause serious psychological distress, dangerous behavior, or medical complications in some cases. However, hallucinogen use rarely induces medical emergencies like depressants and stimulants.

Opioids are derived from the opium poppy, which is used to make morphine. Most opioids are powerful painkillers, such as oxycodone and codeine. However, in addition to their pain-relieving qualities, opioids cause feelings of euphoria and drowsiness. Most opioid-based painkillers are extremely addictive and are prescribed carefully by doctors. If used excessively, opioids can cause nausea, convulsion, coma, and death. The rise of synthetic opioids like fentanyl dramatically increased global overdose deaths. Fentanyl is often mixed with other substances, which makes it difficult to detect, increasing the risk of accidental death.

Cannabis is sometimes classified in its own category, but it exhibits stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogenic properties depending on dosage, strain, and individual response. When used, it induces appetite changes, impaired memory, reduced tension, and feelings of euphoria. It can also cause changes in blood pressure, anxiety, and reduced physical coordination. Cannabis also contains cannabidiol (CBD), compound that does not produce any intoxicating “high” and that some assert has therapeutic applications. Medical cannabis is legal in many countries, and recreational use is legal in parts of North America, South America, Europe, and Asia. Its legal status varies by country and depends on its source and intended use.

Some drugs are specifically manufactured to skirt legal requirements. These drugs, often called designer drugs, can be based on drugs from any category, and some are a cocktail of drugs from multiple categories. These psychoactive drugs include spice, bath salts, and many other chemicals. Many variations of these drugs are rapidly manufactured as older variants are outlawed, making designer drugs extremely difficult for law enforcement agencies and public health organizations to manage and regulate. These substances are unpredictable, poorly studied, and carry high risks of toxicity, psychosis, and overdose.

In the 2020s, scientists actively studied psychedelic compounds such as psilocybin, MDMA, ketamine, and LSD for their potential therapeutic use. The US military launched a $9.8 million clinical trial using MDMA to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in service members, while other studies explored the use of psilocybin to relieve phantom limb pain, which affects up to 80 percent of amputees. However, in 2024 the FDA declined to approve MDMA for PTSD and requested additional evidence. Neuroscientific research indicates that psilocybin temporarily disrupts brain networks associated with self-perception and default mode processing.

In March 2024, the FDA granted breakthrough therapy designation to LSD for the psychedelic-assisted treatment of generalized anxiety disorder and expanded approval for esketamine (Spravato) as a treatment for adults with treatment-resistant depression, with the FDA labeling that the drug is for treatment-resistant depression in adults as monotherapy or in conjunction with an oral antidepressant. Compounds like RE-104 (a short-acting psychedelic) have been tested for postpartum and treatment-resistant depression. Similarly, the pharmaceutical company Tactogen began developing medications modeled after MDMA that aim to retain therapeutic benefits while minimizing adverse effects.


Bibliography

Cherian, Kirsten N., et al. “Magnesium-Ibogaine Therapy in Veterans with Traumatic Brain Injuries.” Nature Medicine, vol. 30, no. 2, 2024, pp. 373–81, doi:10.1038/s41591-023-02705-w. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Daly, Noah. "DOD Commits $9.8 Million to Study Psychedelics for Active-Duty Troops." Military Times, 17 Mar. 2025, www.militarytimes.com/news/your-military/2025/03/17/dod-commits-98-million-to-study-psychedelics-for-active-duty-troops. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

“Drugs (Psychoactive).” World Health Organization, www.who.int/health-topics/drugs-psychoactive. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

“Final Summary Minutes of the Psychopharmacologic Drugs Advisory Committee Meeting.” Food and Drug Administration Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, 4 June 2024, www.fda.gov/media/180463/download. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Hartney, Elizabeth. “What Are Psychedelic Drugs?” VeryWellMind, 29 June 2023, www.verywellmind.com/types-of-psychedelic-drug-22073. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

“Midomafetamine Capsules (NDA 215455) Psychopharmacologic Drugs Advisory Committee June 4, 2024.” U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 4 June 2024, www.fda.gov/media/179061/download. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

“Methamphetamine.” National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), 2 Nov. 2024, nida.nih.gov/research-topics/methamphetamine. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

“Psilocybin for Mental Health and Addiction: What You Need To Know.” National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, www.nccih.nih.gov/health/psilocybin-for-mental-health-and-addiction-what-you-need-to-know. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

“Psychoactive Drugs Tobacco, Alcohol, and Illicit Substances.” Green Facts, www.greenfacts.org/en/psychoactive-drugs/index.htm. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

“Psychoactive Substance.” National Cancer Institute, www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/796898. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Sederer, Lloyd. “9 Things That Matter about Psychoactive Drugs.” Scientific American, 8 May, 2018, blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/9-things-that-matter-about-psychoactive-drugs. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Spravato (esketamine) Prescribing Information.” U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jan. 2025, www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2025/211243s019lbl.pdf. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026

“Timeline: Drugs and Alcohol.” New Scientist, 2006, www.newscientist.com/article/dn9924-timeline-drugs-and-alcohol. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Understanding the Opioid Overdose Epidemic.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 9 June 2025, www.cdc.gov/overdose-prevention/about/understanding-the-opioid-overdose-epidemic.html. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

“World Drug Report 2023.” United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2023, www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/world-drug-report-2023.html. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

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