RESEARCH STARTER

Conductors and resistors

Conductors and resistors are fundamental components of electrical systems, playing crucial roles in the transmission and regulation of electric current. Conductors are materials that allow electrons to flow easily, facilitating the conduction of electricity, while resistors impede this flow, creating resistance that can be intentionally built into circuits for specific functions. The efficiency of a conductor is determined by its atomic structure, which influences the number of free electrons available to carry current, as well as external factors like temperature. Common conductive materials include metals such as copper and aluminum, which are favored for their low resistance, particularly in applications like telecommunications and power distribution.

Resistors, on the other hand, come in various forms—linear and nonlinear—and are designed to control the flow of current within a circuit. They are essential for functions such as voltage regulation and heat sensing. Innovations in materials science have led to the development of superconductors that conduct electricity with virtually no resistance at low temperatures, promising significant advancements in energy efficiency. As technology evolves, especially in the realm of fiber optics, the quest continues for materials that enhance conductivity and reduce energy loss, which could revolutionize both power transmission and data communication. Understanding the principles of conductors and resistors is vital in the context of our increasingly electronic world, where efficient energy use and reliable communication are paramount.

Full Article

  • Type of physical science: Classical physics
  • Field of study: Electromagnetism

When electrons travel from one point to another through a substance, that substance is said to be acting as a conductor of electricity. Each substance found in nature conducts electricity differently, at a rate that is directly related to the amount of resistance those electrons encounter along the way. Those substances that are highly resistant to electron flow are poor conductors, while those that offer low resistance are good conductors of electricity.

Overview

A well-known story about Benjamin Franklin, the American patriot and inventor, describes his attempt to attract a flow of electricity by sending a kite aloft during a lightning storm. Franklin theorized that lightning was the visible process whereby electrical energy in the atmosphere discharges into the ground, often taking the path of least resistance. That path might be a tree, a building, or any object or person unfortunate enough to be touching both the atmosphere and the ground when the conditions are just right. In the case of Franklin’s kite, the intended path was the kite string. Scientists in England and France, acting upon Franklin’s proposal, had performed the experiment before Franklin’s attempt in 1752. These experiments helped demonstrate that lightning was electric in nature and that this electrical energy could be collected from the atmosphere using conductive rods and the electricity would “flow” through these conductive materials.

In the twenty-first century, the term “conductor” denotes the path taken by those particles as they travel from one point to another. This process is called conduction. Its nature varies from substance to substance, depending upon the amount of resistance to the flow of electricity present. Conduction is also affected by temperature and other factors.

Many naturally occurring substances, including some gases and liquids, are capable of conducting electricity under certain conditions, but others—such as pure distilled water or dry gases—are poor conductors. Nevertheless, some substances contain atoms whose proton and electron structures provide better conditions for the creation of electron flow than do other substances.

These substances are more efficient conductors of electricity and are used most often in the application of electrical science to everyday life. They include pure metals such as aluminum, copper, gold, iron, silver, and tin. It should be noted that a “normal” temperature range is assumed, which is usually defined as 20 degrees Celsius. In fact, some substances that are poor conductors of electricity at normal temperatures perform very well at extremely cold temperatures. During the late 1980s, researchers discovered new substances that led to renewed interest in the study of materials that become “superconductors,” or materials that conduct electricity with virtually no resistance, at low temperatures. These included some synthetic ceramics. Superconductors would make it possible to transmit electricity and operate electronic equipment with tremendous efficiency at low cost. Advances have led to experimental superconducting electric lines that can transmit electricity with extremely low energy loss, bringing practical applications closer to reality.

The primary factor in determining whether a substance is a good conductor or a poor one is the amount of resistance encountered by electrons as they pass through the material. This resistance depends on the nature of the atomic structure of the material, its molecular structure, and the impurities present. In some materials where atoms contain large numbers of free electrons, those electrons move with relative ease so that electrical energy is passed from one end of the conductor to the other with little loss of energy. In other substances with fewer free electrons, flow is impeded. When that occurs, energy escapes in the form of heat, light energy, or other forms of electromagnetic radiation. Perhaps the most familiar example of this effect is the glow that emanates from an incandescent light bulb, the result of intentional resistance built into the circuit using materials that offer properties of resistance ideal for that purpose.

To impede the escape of both current and electromagnetic radiation, conductors are insulated. Insulators are constructed of materials that have very poor conductive properties.

Insulators ensure that as current moves along the primary conductor, it is not sidetracked when it comes in contact with other materials along its length. Early telegraph wires of the nineteenth century, for example, often traveled across ceramic or glass insulators where the wires came in contact with support poles. These insulating materials are poor conductors of electricity at normal temperatures. Soon, engineers discovered that naturally occurring electromagnetic phenomena interfered with transmission during storms. As the number of electric wires traversing the landscape increased, many of them strung along the same poles, electromagnetic interference also became a problem. A new form of insulation had to be devised. Eventually, the wire was encapsulated in rubber casings lined internally with paper or some other form of nonconducting material to prevent disruptive interference. Later, metallic liners were incorporated that served to shield the internal conductor from incoming electromagnetic interference, as well as to prevent outgoing radiation.

Materials with highly conductive properties are desirable because they require less energy than poor conductors at the input stage relative to the amount of energy output that results from transmission. This principle is usually applied to all technologies in the form of input-to-output ratios called efficiency ratings. Based upon that premise, resistance as a factor in electrical transmission would appear to have no intrinsic value. In fact, where resistance is controlled, as in the case of the light bulb, it has great value. Resistance is a fundamental principle incorporated in the design of all electrical systems.

There are two basic forms of resistance. Distributed resistance refers to the resistance found throughout a circuit, called inherent resistance or internal resistance; it generally describes the resistive character of the material used to conduct electricity. The other form of resistance is called lumped resistance, which refers to resistance that occurs in concentrations at one place or another along a circuit. These concentrated areas of resistance are often desirable in electronic circuitry and, when introduced in the form of components, are called resistors. Resistors offer a way to intentionally reduce the amount of electrical current allowed to flow through a circuit at particular points within that circuit. To know how much resistance is too much, too little, or just enough, it is necessary to measure the resistance.

In 1826, a German physicist, Georg Simon Ohm, discovered a relationship between the amount of resistance in a circuit, the amount of unvarying current applied to that circuit, and the amount of voltage applied to it. He discovered a direct relationship between the amount of current and the amount of voltage and an inverse relationship between the amount of current and the amount of resistance. From his discovery sprang the definition of the basic unit of resistance, called, appropriately, the ohm. Often, a complete electrical circuit will contain several regions of electronic structure designed to perform functions somewhat independent of one another, with each requiring different levels of current; these values are denoted in ohms.

Resistors, which come in all shapes, sizes, and ohm values, perform this function. They are made from numerous alloys (such as nickel-chromium), carbon-based compounds (such as graphite and clay), semiconductors (including germanium and silicon), and many other materials. The kinds of materials used to manufacture resistors are often related to size requirements and other environmental conditions, such as operating temperatures, that must be factored into their design.

There is a class of resistors known as “nonlinear,” whose behavior does not conform to ohmic principles. In some cases, their performance varies only slightly, while in others, the departure is significant. In some, called voltage-dependent resistors, or varistors, electric current increases at a faster rate than the rate at which increased voltage is applied. In others, called thermistors, resistance either increases or decreases when the resistor is heated. In all cases, the ohm value of the resistor is either fixed or variable.

Applications

Conductors and resistors have been used since the early nineteenth century in numerous electrical applications. During the 1830s, Samuel Finley Breese Morse demonstrated that an electric current could be sent over long distances via insulated copper wire, launching the era of the telegraph. In 1858, Cyrus West Field laid the first transatlantic telegraph cable, and by the early twentieth century, the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) was operating long-distance telephone circuits using copper wire with amplification circuits placed strategically along the way.

Over the years, researchers have continually improved the conductive efficiency of the materials employed in that technology. Steel gave way to copper, which gradually became purer, thereby increasing efficiency. Greater efficiency meant the same amount of current could be sent over smaller and lighter conductors for longer distances. Eventually, that range was extended even further with the invention of amplifiers that could be placed strategically within the circuit.

With the arrival of the computer age, the desire for high capacity and lightning speed in transmission circuitry resulted in the development of exotic new light conductors that transmit light energy. These include glass (silica) and plastic materials used in fiber optic cables.

Conductors are used to transmit electricity in many forms: as direct and alternating current to drive electrical devices; as analog voice and data signals in telecommunications circuitry; and as light energy for high-speed, high-quality digital transmission. Conductors of all types are found in virtually all electrical devices and transmission facilities and consist of many different materials. The most popular conductors are those that exhibit the least amount of resistance. This attribute is particularly important in the transmission of high-voltage electric current that must travel long distances. High resistance in transmission lines leads to energy loss through heat and radiation. The resulting low transmission efficiency can be costly. High resistance is also an important concern in the modern telecommunications environment, where significant conductor resistance can result in external radiation of modulated electrical signals.

Once radiated, these signals are vulnerable to interception, making them a threat to the security of proprietary voice and data transmission. Increasingly, however, other factors are becoming important. For example, light fiber exhibits virtually no traceable radiation of energy and a much higher transmission capacity than metal conductors of comparable dimensions. Other technologies in the development stage include laser-based communication systems that can transmit data over long distances.

Resistors also are used widely in electrical devices. Linear-type variable resistors like the volume control found on radios, televisions, and stereos vary the ohmic value of electric current allowed to move through the electric circuit. Nonlinear types called varistors are used principally as voltage regulators, lightning arresters, contact protectors, and transient suppressors.

Thermistors are used primarily as heat sensors; temperature sensors in devices such as thermostats, digital thermometers, and environmental monitoring systems; and the basic components of flow meters, gas analyzers, fire alarms, and infrared detectors.

Context

The modern age is an electronic age whose lifeblood runs through billions of kilometers of conductive materials. Virtually all technology relies heavily upon electrical circuitry to provide the conduit for the electricity required to drive the engines of productivity.

As the bond of that reliance has grown ever stronger, scientists have worked to identify and refine conductive materials that promise greater efficiencies in the tasks electronic conductors are designed to perform. As these conductors become more efficient, the cost of electrical energy relative to the value of the productivity created in the process goes down. The ultimate conductor, then, is the one that will allow electricity to flow over long distances without resistance so that the amount of electricity entering the conductor at one end equals the amount emerging at the other. Once that ideal state of conduction is achieved, electrical applications previously considered uneconomical or otherwise impractical will become commonplace.

Examples include electric commuter trains that can run economically over long distances at high speeds and electronic equipment such as computers that will no longer require cooling systems to expel heat created by radiated electrical energy flowing through the circuitry. By eliminating radiated energy that is present in the form of heat, all electronic circuitry can be miniaturized. As a result, manufacturers will enjoy greater control over the design and function of virtually all electronic devices and will be able to enhance the productivity of those devices.

Another reason that scientists are seeking the ultimate conductor is the demand for high-capacity facilities designed to transmit digital information among computers and within computer networks. Like the conductors of electricity used by public utilities to provide energy to customers, these facilities must provide high-speed, high-quality transmission, but with the added burden of avoiding significant levels of electromagnetic interference. In other words, in order for data transmission to be reliable, the packets of digital information that move along the conductor must do so with no loss of data.

Otherwise, communication among computers and related equipment cannot occur, and the process becomes impractical. The existing public telecommunications network was designed to carry voice, not digital traffic; as a result, it is often unsuitable for all but the most basic data transmission. The need for a better and more versatile conductor led scientists to a revolutionary concept: the use of light in place of electricity to transmit impulses. These materials are called fiber optics.

During the 1980s, the cost of producing fiber-optic materials for use as conductors fell into a range competitive with traditional metallic conductors. Fiber optics also provided a level of efficiency, with virtually no radiation leakage, that was unmatched by the metals. Light was used instead of current to propel data instantaneously and could transmit much more data on strands many times smaller than standard-gauge copper wire. By 1990, US telecommunications companies had created a fiber network that spanned the continent and were well on their way to producing fiber links that could provide truly universal voice and data transmission to each home. Fiber optic technology became a cost-effective and superior alternative to metallic conductors, enabling the rapid expansion of a nationwide fiber network and paving the way for universal high-speed voice and data transmission. Fiber optic networks are hence forming the backbone of the global internet, enabling high-speed data transmission for technologies such as cloud computing and 5G.

Principal terms

AMPERES: the amount of electromotive force that would result from 1 volt of electricity conducted through a resistance of 1 ohm

CONDUCTOR: a substance through which an electric current passes

OHM: a unit measure of resistance; equal to the resistance of a circuit, where 1 volt of electromotive force maintains 1 ampere of electric current

RESISTOR: a device used in a circuit to create resistance

SEMICONDUCTOR: a material whose resistivity is between that of insulators and conductors

VOLTAGE: electromotive force expressed in volts


Bibliography

Albert, Arthur Lemuel. Electronics and Electron Devices. Macmillan, 1956.

“Benjamin Franklin and the Kite Experiment.” The Franklin Institute, fi.edu/en/science-and-education/benjamin-franklin/kite-key-experiment. Accessed 23 Apr. 2026.

Bureau of Naval Personnel. Basic Electronics. U.S. Bureau of Naval Personnel, Navy Training Course, 1968.

“A Complete Guide to Resistors.” RS, 5 Aug. 2024, uk.rs-online.com/web/content/discovery/ideas-and-advice/resistors-guide. Accessed 23 Apr. 2026.

“Fiber Optics and Modern Communications Backbones.” EITC, eitc.org/research-opportunities/future-internet-and-optical-quantum-communications/optical-and-quantum-communications-and-the-quantum-technology/fiber-optics-and-modern-communications-backbones. Accessed 23 Apr. 2026.

Helmenstine, Anne Marie. “10 Examples of Electrical Conductors and Insulators.” ThoughtCo, 3 May 2024, www.thoughtco.com/examples-of-electrical-conductors-and-insulators-608315. Accessed 23 Apr. 2026.

Lurch, E. Norman. Fundamentals of Electronics. John Wiley & Sons, 1981.

Manning, Catherine G., and Katherine Schauer. “Optical Communications.” NASA, 20 Sept. 2023, www.nasa.gov/technology/space-comms/optical-communications-overview/#section-3. Accessed 23 Apr. 2026.

Mullin, William F. Abc’s of Capacitors. Howard V. Sams, 1976.

Thomas, Heiko, et al. “Efficiency of Superconducting Transmission Lines: An Analysis with Respect to the Load Factor and Capacity Rating,” Electric Power Systems Research, vol. 141, 2016, pp. 381–91, doi:10.1016/j.epsr.2016.07.007.

Turner, Rufus B. Abc’s of Resistance and Resistors. Howard V. Sams, 1974.

Full Article

  • Type of physical science: Classical physics
  • Field of study: Electromagnetism

When electrons travel from one point to another through a substance, that substance is said to be acting as a conductor of electricity. Each substance found in nature conducts electricity differently, at a rate that is directly related to the amount of resistance those electrons encounter along the way. Those substances that are highly resistant to electron flow are poor conductors, while those that offer low resistance are good conductors of electricity.

Overview

A well-known story about Benjamin Franklin, the American patriot and inventor, describes his attempt to attract a flow of electricity by sending a kite aloft during a lightning storm. Franklin theorized that lightning was the visible process whereby electrical energy in the atmosphere discharges into the ground, often taking the path of least resistance. That path might be a tree, a building, or any object or person unfortunate enough to be touching both the atmosphere and the ground when the conditions are just right. In the case of Franklin’s kite, the intended path was the kite string. Scientists in England and France, acting upon Franklin’s proposal, had performed the experiment before Franklin’s attempt in 1752. These experiments helped demonstrate that lightning was electric in nature and that this electrical energy could be collected from the atmosphere using conductive rods and the electricity would “flow” through these conductive materials.

In the twenty-first century, the term “conductor” denotes the path taken by those particles as they travel from one point to another. This process is called conduction. Its nature varies from substance to substance, depending upon the amount of resistance to the flow of electricity present. Conduction is also affected by temperature and other factors.

Many naturally occurring substances, including some gases and liquids, are capable of conducting electricity under certain conditions, but others—such as pure distilled water or dry gases—are poor conductors. Nevertheless, some substances contain atoms whose proton and electron structures provide better conditions for the creation of electron flow than do other substances.

These substances are more efficient conductors of electricity and are used most often in the application of electrical science to everyday life. They include pure metals such as aluminum, copper, gold, iron, silver, and tin. It should be noted that a “normal” temperature range is assumed, which is usually defined as 20 degrees Celsius. In fact, some substances that are poor conductors of electricity at normal temperatures perform very well at extremely cold temperatures. During the late 1980s, researchers discovered new substances that led to renewed interest in the study of materials that become “superconductors,” or materials that conduct electricity with virtually no resistance, at low temperatures. These included some synthetic ceramics. Superconductors would make it possible to transmit electricity and operate electronic equipment with tremendous efficiency at low cost. Advances have led to experimental superconducting electric lines that can transmit electricity with extremely low energy loss, bringing practical applications closer to reality.

The primary factor in determining whether a substance is a good conductor or a poor one is the amount of resistance encountered by electrons as they pass through the material. This resistance depends on the nature of the atomic structure of the material, its molecular structure, and the impurities present. In some materials where atoms contain large numbers of free electrons, those electrons move with relative ease so that electrical energy is passed from one end of the conductor to the other with little loss of energy. In other substances with fewer free electrons, flow is impeded. When that occurs, energy escapes in the form of heat, light energy, or other forms of electromagnetic radiation. Perhaps the most familiar example of this effect is the glow that emanates from an incandescent light bulb, the result of intentional resistance built into the circuit using materials that offer properties of resistance ideal for that purpose.

To impede the escape of both current and electromagnetic radiation, conductors are insulated. Insulators are constructed of materials that have very poor conductive properties.

Insulators ensure that as current moves along the primary conductor, it is not sidetracked when it comes in contact with other materials along its length. Early telegraph wires of the nineteenth century, for example, often traveled across ceramic or glass insulators where the wires came in contact with support poles. These insulating materials are poor conductors of electricity at normal temperatures. Soon, engineers discovered that naturally occurring electromagnetic phenomena interfered with transmission during storms. As the number of electric wires traversing the landscape increased, many of them strung along the same poles, electromagnetic interference also became a problem. A new form of insulation had to be devised. Eventually, the wire was encapsulated in rubber casings lined internally with paper or some other form of nonconducting material to prevent disruptive interference. Later, metallic liners were incorporated that served to shield the internal conductor from incoming electromagnetic interference, as well as to prevent outgoing radiation.

Materials with highly conductive properties are desirable because they require less energy than poor conductors at the input stage relative to the amount of energy output that results from transmission. This principle is usually applied to all technologies in the form of input-to-output ratios called efficiency ratings. Based upon that premise, resistance as a factor in electrical transmission would appear to have no intrinsic value. In fact, where resistance is controlled, as in the case of the light bulb, it has great value. Resistance is a fundamental principle incorporated in the design of all electrical systems.

There are two basic forms of resistance. Distributed resistance refers to the resistance found throughout a circuit, called inherent resistance or internal resistance; it generally describes the resistive character of the material used to conduct electricity. The other form of resistance is called lumped resistance, which refers to resistance that occurs in concentrations at one place or another along a circuit. These concentrated areas of resistance are often desirable in electronic circuitry and, when introduced in the form of components, are called resistors. Resistors offer a way to intentionally reduce the amount of electrical current allowed to flow through a circuit at particular points within that circuit. To know how much resistance is too much, too little, or just enough, it is necessary to measure the resistance.

In 1826, a German physicist, Georg Simon Ohm, discovered a relationship between the amount of resistance in a circuit, the amount of unvarying current applied to that circuit, and the amount of voltage applied to it. He discovered a direct relationship between the amount of current and the amount of voltage and an inverse relationship between the amount of current and the amount of resistance. From his discovery sprang the definition of the basic unit of resistance, called, appropriately, the ohm. Often, a complete electrical circuit will contain several regions of electronic structure designed to perform functions somewhat independent of one another, with each requiring different levels of current; these values are denoted in ohms.

Resistors, which come in all shapes, sizes, and ohm values, perform this function. They are made from numerous alloys (such as nickel-chromium), carbon-based compounds (such as graphite and clay), semiconductors (including germanium and silicon), and many other materials. The kinds of materials used to manufacture resistors are often related to size requirements and other environmental conditions, such as operating temperatures, that must be factored into their design.

There is a class of resistors known as “nonlinear,” whose behavior does not conform to ohmic principles. In some cases, their performance varies only slightly, while in others, the departure is significant. In some, called voltage-dependent resistors, or varistors, electric current increases at a faster rate than the rate at which increased voltage is applied. In others, called thermistors, resistance either increases or decreases when the resistor is heated. In all cases, the ohm value of the resistor is either fixed or variable.

Applications

Conductors and resistors have been used since the early nineteenth century in numerous electrical applications. During the 1830s, Samuel Finley Breese Morse demonstrated that an electric current could be sent over long distances via insulated copper wire, launching the era of the telegraph. In 1858, Cyrus West Field laid the first transatlantic telegraph cable, and by the early twentieth century, the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) was operating long-distance telephone circuits using copper wire with amplification circuits placed strategically along the way.

Over the years, researchers have continually improved the conductive efficiency of the materials employed in that technology. Steel gave way to copper, which gradually became purer, thereby increasing efficiency. Greater efficiency meant the same amount of current could be sent over smaller and lighter conductors for longer distances. Eventually, that range was extended even further with the invention of amplifiers that could be placed strategically within the circuit.

With the arrival of the computer age, the desire for high capacity and lightning speed in transmission circuitry resulted in the development of exotic new light conductors that transmit light energy. These include glass (silica) and plastic materials used in fiber optic cables.

Conductors are used to transmit electricity in many forms: as direct and alternating current to drive electrical devices; as analog voice and data signals in telecommunications circuitry; and as light energy for high-speed, high-quality digital transmission. Conductors of all types are found in virtually all electrical devices and transmission facilities and consist of many different materials. The most popular conductors are those that exhibit the least amount of resistance. This attribute is particularly important in the transmission of high-voltage electric current that must travel long distances. High resistance in transmission lines leads to energy loss through heat and radiation. The resulting low transmission efficiency can be costly. High resistance is also an important concern in the modern telecommunications environment, where significant conductor resistance can result in external radiation of modulated electrical signals.

Once radiated, these signals are vulnerable to interception, making them a threat to the security of proprietary voice and data transmission. Increasingly, however, other factors are becoming important. For example, light fiber exhibits virtually no traceable radiation of energy and a much higher transmission capacity than metal conductors of comparable dimensions. Other technologies in the development stage include laser-based communication systems that can transmit data over long distances.

Resistors also are used widely in electrical devices. Linear-type variable resistors like the volume control found on radios, televisions, and stereos vary the ohmic value of electric current allowed to move through the electric circuit. Nonlinear types called varistors are used principally as voltage regulators, lightning arresters, contact protectors, and transient suppressors.

Thermistors are used primarily as heat sensors; temperature sensors in devices such as thermostats, digital thermometers, and environmental monitoring systems; and the basic components of flow meters, gas analyzers, fire alarms, and infrared detectors.

Context

The modern age is an electronic age whose lifeblood runs through billions of kilometers of conductive materials. Virtually all technology relies heavily upon electrical circuitry to provide the conduit for the electricity required to drive the engines of productivity.

As the bond of that reliance has grown ever stronger, scientists have worked to identify and refine conductive materials that promise greater efficiencies in the tasks electronic conductors are designed to perform. As these conductors become more efficient, the cost of electrical energy relative to the value of the productivity created in the process goes down. The ultimate conductor, then, is the one that will allow electricity to flow over long distances without resistance so that the amount of electricity entering the conductor at one end equals the amount emerging at the other. Once that ideal state of conduction is achieved, electrical applications previously considered uneconomical or otherwise impractical will become commonplace.

Examples include electric commuter trains that can run economically over long distances at high speeds and electronic equipment such as computers that will no longer require cooling systems to expel heat created by radiated electrical energy flowing through the circuitry. By eliminating radiated energy that is present in the form of heat, all electronic circuitry can be miniaturized. As a result, manufacturers will enjoy greater control over the design and function of virtually all electronic devices and will be able to enhance the productivity of those devices.

Another reason that scientists are seeking the ultimate conductor is the demand for high-capacity facilities designed to transmit digital information among computers and within computer networks. Like the conductors of electricity used by public utilities to provide energy to customers, these facilities must provide high-speed, high-quality transmission, but with the added burden of avoiding significant levels of electromagnetic interference. In other words, in order for data transmission to be reliable, the packets of digital information that move along the conductor must do so with no loss of data.

Otherwise, communication among computers and related equipment cannot occur, and the process becomes impractical. The existing public telecommunications network was designed to carry voice, not digital traffic; as a result, it is often unsuitable for all but the most basic data transmission. The need for a better and more versatile conductor led scientists to a revolutionary concept: the use of light in place of electricity to transmit impulses. These materials are called fiber optics.

During the 1980s, the cost of producing fiber-optic materials for use as conductors fell into a range competitive with traditional metallic conductors. Fiber optics also provided a level of efficiency, with virtually no radiation leakage, that was unmatched by the metals. Light was used instead of current to propel data instantaneously and could transmit much more data on strands many times smaller than standard-gauge copper wire. By 1990, US telecommunications companies had created a fiber network that spanned the continent and were well on their way to producing fiber links that could provide truly universal voice and data transmission to each home. Fiber optic technology became a cost-effective and superior alternative to metallic conductors, enabling the rapid expansion of a nationwide fiber network and paving the way for universal high-speed voice and data transmission. Fiber optic networks are hence forming the backbone of the global internet, enabling high-speed data transmission for technologies such as cloud computing and 5G.

Principal terms

AMPERES: the amount of electromotive force that would result from 1 volt of electricity conducted through a resistance of 1 ohm

CONDUCTOR: a substance through which an electric current passes

OHM: a unit measure of resistance; equal to the resistance of a circuit, where 1 volt of electromotive force maintains 1 ampere of electric current

RESISTOR: a device used in a circuit to create resistance

SEMICONDUCTOR: a material whose resistivity is between that of insulators and conductors

VOLTAGE: electromotive force expressed in volts


Bibliography

Albert, Arthur Lemuel. Electronics and Electron Devices. Macmillan, 1956.

“Benjamin Franklin and the Kite Experiment.” The Franklin Institute, fi.edu/en/science-and-education/benjamin-franklin/kite-key-experiment. Accessed 23 Apr. 2026.

Bureau of Naval Personnel. Basic Electronics. U.S. Bureau of Naval Personnel, Navy Training Course, 1968.

“A Complete Guide to Resistors.” RS, 5 Aug. 2024, uk.rs-online.com/web/content/discovery/ideas-and-advice/resistors-guide. Accessed 23 Apr. 2026.

“Fiber Optics and Modern Communications Backbones.” EITC, eitc.org/research-opportunities/future-internet-and-optical-quantum-communications/optical-and-quantum-communications-and-the-quantum-technology/fiber-optics-and-modern-communications-backbones. Accessed 23 Apr. 2026.

Helmenstine, Anne Marie. “10 Examples of Electrical Conductors and Insulators.” ThoughtCo, 3 May 2024, www.thoughtco.com/examples-of-electrical-conductors-and-insulators-608315. Accessed 23 Apr. 2026.

Lurch, E. Norman. Fundamentals of Electronics. John Wiley & Sons, 1981.

Manning, Catherine G., and Katherine Schauer. “Optical Communications.” NASA, 20 Sept. 2023, www.nasa.gov/technology/space-comms/optical-communications-overview/#section-3. Accessed 23 Apr. 2026.

Mullin, William F. Abc’s of Capacitors. Howard V. Sams, 1976.

Thomas, Heiko, et al. “Efficiency of Superconducting Transmission Lines: An Analysis with Respect to the Load Factor and Capacity Rating,” Electric Power Systems Research, vol. 141, 2016, pp. 381–91, doi:10.1016/j.epsr.2016.07.007.

Turner, Rufus B. Abc’s of Resistance and Resistors. Howard V. Sams, 1974.

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