Nature reserves

DEFINITION: Areas set aside for the protection of animal and plant species, as well as unique geologic formations and other landscape features, in their natural state

Protected natural areas serve as repositories of biodiversity. Their preservation helps protect complex ecological, hydrological, and climatological cycles, as well as distinctive landscapes and cultural and historical resources. However, the protection of these sites from development and the exploitation of the natural resources they contain often leads to conflict and controversy.

The nature reserve concept is often traced back to 1872, when the US Congress established Yellowstone as the world’s first national park. In fact, the basic idea is much older. In medieval England, the New Forest was a royal preserve. It had a special protected status so that the king and his nobles could enjoy fine hunting in a land where farming was rapidly encroaching upon woodlands. Despite the hunting and poaching detailed in history and legend, the New Forest remained a viable natural area for centuries.

As the vast western regions of North America were explored, spectacular places such as Banff in Canada (1885) and Yosemite in California (1890) received government protection. The number of protected areas grew over the following decades. By the late twentieth century, thousands of natural sites and parks had been designated for protection at the state and federal levels in North America. These ranged from pristine wilderness to multiple-use areas such as national forests, where some commercial logging is allowed.

The movement to set aside areas for the preservation of nature developed differently on other continents, but by the late twentieth century, almost every nation in the world had established nature reserves. By the mid-2020s, more than 6,500 national parks existed worldwide, with over 800 wilderness protection areas located in the United States alone. International treaties give special recognition to three types of reserves: Biosphere reserves, designated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), shield strictly protected areas with zones of limited, sustainable activity around them; World Heritage Sites, also designated by UNESCO, contain extraordinary natural, cultural, or historical features; and Ramsar sites are wetlands systems protected under the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, also known as the Ramsar Convention. Most nature reserves are created and managed by governments, although some, often referred to as nature conservancies, are run under private auspices.

Nature reserves serve as reservoirs of native species and genetic diversity; as viable ecosystems that support biological, hydrological, and climatic cycles even outside their bounds; and as places for people to observe and enjoy the natural world. These goals are not innately incompatible. In managing reserves, however, decisions may have to be made that favor one aspect over the others.

Issues in Nature Reserve Management

Few people oppose nature reserves in the abstract, but when it comes to real-life choices, many conflicts arise, and clashes between biological or scenic integrity and human economic needs are common. In developed countries, disagreements often take the form of duels between industries seeking to use specific natural resources and government bureaus and conservation groups trying to prevent such activities. Examples include disputes over oil drilling or pipeline construction in remote natural areas and clashes over timber operations and mining in national forests. Such struggles become more heated when unique species are threatened, as in the controversy in the Pacific Northwest regarding logging in the forest habitat of the northern spotted owl.

Developing nations face similar problems and more. By restricting natural areas, developing countries often deprive their own citizens of traditional food sources and trade items. Banning the sale of natural products may encourage poaching, as the banned products may bring even higher prices on the black market. A well-known example is the illegal trade in African elephant ivory and rhinoceros horns.

Tensions also occur between individuals and groups who value the preservation of pristine wilderness and those who demand access to natural areas for recreational use. Tourists and campers bring cash and public support to parks, but they can disturb delicate natural balances. Automobile traffic brings pollution and noise problems within the boundaries of nature reserves. Despite strong warnings about behavior, visitors may still start forest fires or introduce alien organisms to an area. Advocates of public access argue, however, that because such lands are public trusts, their reasonable use should not be denied to the citizens who support them.

Other issues arise concerning the management of nature reserves. Fires, epidemics, and unusual weather patterns may threaten nature’s balances. When disasters occur, should humans intervene? A consistent environmental ethic might say no—nature will eventually restore itself. However, entire species may be lost before a natural balance reasserts itself. Many such losses to biodiversity are at least partly or indirectly caused by human actions. Science does not provide clear answers. Furthermore, measures taken to prevent or relieve such crises do not always work and may have unanticipated consequences of their own. Several technical issues related to nature reserves also require further consideration. These include examination of the efficacy of small reserves in protecting specific species, the role of reserves in stabilizing the mix of gases in the earth’s atmosphere and slowing global climate change, and the tipping point in the recovery of a species or a damaged ecosystem.

Several promising ideas have enriched the reserve movement. The foremost is international cooperation and joint action. UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites program is a major achievement of this approach. Another is the establishment or recognition of natural areas sponsored by nongovernmental groups. Two different but equally positive examples in the United States are the nature conservation movement and the increasing recognition of the importance of Native American sacred sites, which began in the late twentieth century.

Another concept that has helped reserve efforts to flourish, particularly in the developing world, is ecotourism. Ecotourism is a billion-dollar industry; these dollars represent an economic incentive for countries to preserve their unspoiled wilderness areas. However, poorly managed ecotourism can damage ecosystems and become counterproductive. Community-led ecotourism, such as plans led by Indigenous peoples, often has positive results for biodiversity and conservation.

Bibliography

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Carey, Christine, et al. Squandering Paradise? The Importance and Vulnerability of the World’s Protected Areas. World Wide Fund for Nature International, 2000.

Chape, Stuart, et al., editors. The World’s Protected Areas: Status, Values, and Prospects in the Twenty-first Century. U of California P, 2008.

Duncan, Dayton, and Ken Burns. The National Parks: America’s Best Idea—an Illustrated History. Alfred A. Knopf, 2009.

Ghimire, K. B., and Michel P. Pimbert, editors. Social Change and Conservation. Earthscan, 2009.

Jaynes, Cristen Hemingway. "Nature Reserves 101: Everything You Need to Know." EcoWatch, 19 Oct. 2023, www.ecowatch.com/nature-reserves-facts-ecowatch.html. Accessed 25 Sept. 2025.

Lockwood, Michael, et al., editors. Managing Protected Areas: A Global Guide. Earthscan, 2006.

Riley, Laura, and William Riley. Nature’s Strongholds: The World’s Great Wildlife Reserves. Princeton UP, 2005.

Samal, Rajashree, and Madhusmita Dash. “Ecotourism, Biodiversity Conservation and Livelihoods: Understanding the Convergence and Divergence.” International Journal of Geoheritage and Parks, vol. 11, no. 1, 2023, pp. 1–20, doi:10.1016/j.ijgeop.2022.11.001. Accessed 25 Sept. 2025.

Stokstad, Erik. "Do Nature Reserves Work? It Depends on the Management." Science, 21 Apr. 2022, www.science.org/content/article/do-nature-reserves-work-it-depends-management. Accessed 25 Sept. 2025.