Patterns of Descent and Inheritance

Patterns of descent and inheritance refer to the ways in which lineage and family ties are recognized and transmitted across generations within various cultures. Descent is typically categorized into unilineal and cognatic systems. Unilineal descent recognizes lineage through a single gender line, either matrilineal (through mothers) or patrilineal (through fathers), while cognatic descent encompasses both male and female lines, often resulting in more intricate familial relationships. Within cognatic descent are variations such as bilateral, where individuals belong to both parents' lineages, and ambilineal, allowing individuals to choose which lineage to follow.

The significance of these patterns extends beyond genealogical interests, playing crucial roles in inheritance rights, societal organization, and personal identities. Cultural interpretations of kinship, which may vary widely, influence who is considered family and how resources are allocated within familial structures. In many societies, particularly in preindustrial contexts, descent and inheritance rules are pivotal for transferring property and establishing social status. However, modernization and changes in economic structures are reshaping these traditions, leading to evolving perceptions of kinship and inheritance rights, particularly for women. Understanding these patterns sheds light on the diverse ways cultures define relationships and the implications for personal and societal dynamics.

Published in: 2021

By: Wienclaw, Ruth A.

Subject Terms

Patterns of Descent and Inheritance

Descent is the hereditary derivation or lineage of an individual. Descent comprises socially recognized links between individuals in different generations within a family through several generations. There are a number of general patterns of descent around the world. Unilineal descent is traced through a single line (i.e., male or female). Cognatic descent is a class of nonunilineal descent rules in which both male and female lines are used to determine the kinship relationships between individuals. Cognatic descent patterns typically result in more complex and varied familial relationships than those resulting from unilineal descent rules. Matters of descent and inheritance are still important in many areas of the world from a personal, familial, and societal perspective.

Keywords Ambilineal Descent; Bilateral Descent; Cognatic Descent; Culture; Descent; Kinship; Modernization Theory; Nuclear Family; Parallel Descent; Preindustrial; Society; Unilineal Descent; Uxorilocal Marriage

Family & Relationships > Patterns of Descent & Inheritance

Overview

Defining who is in one's family can be a complicated process. Although it would seem relatively clear that members of one's nuclear family are all kin, there are individuals who would disagree with this definition, finding it too broad in its inclusion of half-siblings, step-siblings, foster siblings, and adopted siblings. With the high number of adoptions and remarriages, it can even be difficult to say who one's parents are: in addition to a biological mother and biological father, one might also have a step-parent, adopted parent, or foster parent. If there are multiple divorces and remarriages, one might even consider multiple people to be one's step-parents even though the bonds of marriage have been dissolved. Untangling relationships becomes even more complicated when aunts and uncles (some of whom are related by blood and some of whom are only good friends of one's parents), cousins, second cousins, and a whole array of other kinship relationships are thrown into the mix.

Kinship

In general, kinship is defined as a set of culturally accepted relationships that define patterns by which individuals can claim to have family ties. Kinship can include those related by birth or common ancestry, marriage, or adoption. However, definitions of kinship can vary widely between cultures: what is considered kin in one culture or society may not be considered kin in another culture or society. In some ways, of course, it may seem like it does not matter who is related to whom by blood. People with an emotional bond may feel and behave like family even if they are not related by kinship ties, and people who are related by blood may fight with or not even speak to each other. Further, in most modern and postmodern societies, one can write a will leaving property or other bequests to whomever one wishes and exclude whomever one wishes.

However, this is not true in all cultures, and things like hereditary titles and lands typically need to be passed on based on lineage or descent. In some cultures, descent rules may define who may or may not inherit within a family or who is in the line of succession for a hereditary title (i.e., the order in which individuals succeed one another for an official position). In the final analysis, however, kinship is considered to be important in most cultures and is one of the most important principles by which societies are organized. Kinship connections can be based on one of three types of social bonds:

Consanguinity,
Affinity, or
Fictive kinship.

Consanguinity bonds (from the Latin meaning "with the blood") are more commonly known as blood ties. One's consanguines or consanguinal relatives are those individuals with whom one has a recognized biological relationship, such as one's parents, grandparents, and siblings. Affinity bonds are those bonds that relate to one's relatives by marriage: spouse, mother-in-law, father-in-law, and so forth. These individuals are also sometimes referred to as ones affines. The third category of bond is that of fictive kinship. This category of bond refers to the relationship of individuals who would not otherwise be thought of as being related (i.e., are not consanguines or affines). This category of bond is used to create links in irregular circumstances. For example, godparents and adopted children are both examples of fictive relationships in European and American cultures.

Descent

As opposed to kinship, descent is the hereditary derivation or lineage of an individual. Descent comprises socially recognized links between individuals in different generations within a family through several generations. Descent patterns or principles are used by cultures to limit the range of individuals through whom descent can be traced. There are a few general patterns of descent, including:

Unilineal,
Cognatic, and
Parallel.

Unilineal descent comprises a class of descent rules in which descent is traced through a single line (i.e., male or female). Although males and females are members of a unilineal family and are considered to be kin, descent links are only recognized through relatives of the same gender. Both matrilineal descent (in which descent is traced through the line of one's mother and female ancestors) and patrilineal descent (in which descent is traced through the line of one's father and male ancestors) are types of unilineal descent. However, approximately 40 percent of societies in the world trace descent through both the ancestors of one's father and mother to some degree. This is done through nonunilineal or cognatic descent principles—rules in which both male and female lines are used to determine the kinship relationships between individuals.

Cognatic descent patterns typically result in more complex and varied familial relationships than those resulting from unilineal descent rules. There are four variations in cognatic descent rules:

Ambilineal,
Bilineal,
Bilateral, and
Parallel.

In this pattern, descent is traced and kinship established through both the female and male lines. In bilineal descent, every individual is a member of both his/her mother's and father's lineage. In bilateral descent, another type of cognatic descent, descent is traced from all biological ancestors no matter the gender or whether they are in the mother's or father's lineage. In bilateral descent, all children regardless of gender are members of both their mother's and father's families. Bilateral descent is the most common pattern of descent in Europe and the Americas. A third type of cognatic descent is ambilineal descent. This is a pattern of descent in which descent is traced and kinship established through either the female or male line. In ambilineal descent, individuals may select one line (i.e., female or male) to trace descent. However, each generation can also choose the parent through which he or she will trace lineage. Therefore, a family line may be matrilineal in one generation and patrilineal in another generation. Ambilineal descent is not a common pattern of descent.

Finally, parallel descent is a form of unilineal descent patterns in which males trace their ancestry through the male line and females trace their ancestry through the female line of the family. Each individual is a member of only one descent group (i.e., male or female).

Industrialization and modernization bring with them a certain lessening of the importance of lineage for inheritance. In modern societies, individuals tend to be more mobile, making kinship bonds less important as they move around and form new groups for support. In addition, the greater degree of industrialization led many individuals to leave the traditional homes of preindustrial societies with their emphasis on extended families, to start new homes of their own with a greater probability of a nuclear rather than an extended family. Because of these and other factors, modern Western societies offer individuals a greater degree of independence than was previously possible in preindustrial societies with a concomitant guarantee of the rights and duties that are transferred and established by marriage in less developed societies to societal institutions (e.g., church and state).

In preindustrial societies, however, matters of descent are still of utmost importance for determining inheritance rights. Whether or not a society is matrilineal or patrilineal, some property can always be transmitted homogeneously on the basis of gender roles. For example, weapons are usually passed down from a father to his sons and cookware is typically passed down from a mother to her daughters. The transmission of land, however, can be more difficult. In unilineal descent groups, one's estate usually includes land rights such as the right to the farm and fields in an agricultural society or grazing rights in a herding society. Such property rights need to be transmitted homogeneously in order to avoid the dispersal of the estate. Another type of property transmission for inheritance is cross-sexual transmission. For example, in the LoDagaa culture of northern Ghana, women can earn money through trading, but it can only be bequeathed to males and not to other females. A third approach to inheritance rights in preindustrial cultures is through diverging transmission. In this approach, there is no sex-linked property nor is there any transmission of property along sex lines.

Applications

Inheritance Rights

Despite the rigidness of some patterns of descent and inheritance, they are not immutable. One example of descent and inheritance practices in the twenty-first century comes from the work of Zhang (2003), who investigated gender differences in inheritance rights in a rural Chinese village. The transfer of wealth between generations in China can occur in several ways, including credit arrangements through financial institutions or kinship networks and government intervention both through economic policies and social programs. However, gifts, inheritance, and bequests between generations within the family remain the primary way in which wealth is transferred. This source of wealth is particularly important in rural China due to the fact that most of the needs that are met by social services in Western countries (and even, to some extent, in urban areas in China) are still being met through familial obligation in rural China. However, there are significant discrepancies in how females and males are treated in rural China regarding the access to and the allocation and transfer of resources between generations. In general, inheritance in rural China still follows patrilineal inheritance patterns. Inheritance is often divided among the male children in rural China, with female children being completely excluded. Traditionally, the only chance a woman had to inherit in such circumstances was if she did not marry. However, strict patrilineal lines are difficult to follow in situations where there are only daughters in the family. In some situations, families without sons have been culturally expected to adopt a close male relative so that the patrilineal pattern can be maintained and the wealth can be kept within the family. The general practice in such societies (including the area of rural China examined in this study) tended to be with uxorilocal marriage (i.e., a marriage in which the husband moves into the wife's household after the wedding). However, in China, such arrangements have often not been well received because of the emphasis on patrilineage in Confucian thought (Zhang, 2003).

In the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, however, this has begun to change. The mandated family program in China has resulted in a situation in which there has been an increase in the number of families with all daughters and no sons. Government campaigns in the 1960s and 1970s were implemented in an attempt to transform traditions and customs in China. Although the effects of these were limited at the time, in later years the incidence of uxorilocal marriages began to rise, and it is becoming the norm for daughters of sonless marriages in China to be able to inherit. As a result of these trends, the government has instituted a number of laws and regulations that are favorable to the rights of women in all-daughter households not only because of the human rights aspect, but also to help enforce the family planning program. In fact, in the 1980s, China revised the marriage law to not only recognize the legitimacy of uxorilocal households but also for the practice of adopting one's mother's surname. In many ways, therefore, daughters' rights of inheritance have been formally codified into the legal system. This situation, in turn, has provided women in China with an instrument that empowers them to claim equal rights in the face of discrimination. As a result, modern women in uxorilocal marriages encounter less discrimination than in the past. However, despite these advances, the rights of daughters have still not significantly advanced beyond the recognition of rights in all-daughter households. In households with both daughters and sons, the rights of the sons are almost universally observed at the expense of the rights of the daughters.

Change is occurring, albeit slowly. However, as trends in greater urbanization continue, the economic structure and composition of rural areas changes, and continued legislation is enacted that supports the rights of women, it is likely that inheritance rights will change as well. Such changes have already begun to impact social institutions and cultural perceptions. Not only are more equal rights being claimed by women in matters of inheritance, but more equal rights are also becoming available for women in terms of education and careers. This situation, in turn, gives women more bargaining power for negotiating other rights as well.

Viewpoints

Although in postindustrial, Western societies, matters of descent and inheritance are often not of paramount importance, in other cultures and other countries, this is not true nor has it been historically. Given the fact that Western practice typically allows one to divide and bequeath one's estate however one desires, matters of descent and inheritance may seem to be of little concern except from a genealogical perspective in determining one's family tree.

Sociological Significance

However, matters of descent and inheritance are important in many areas of the world from a personal, familial, and societal perspective. Particularly in rural areas of developing countries, the wealth transferred from one generation to another is important for establishing the position and status of the younger generation. If a woman, for example, is not allowed to inherit, in many ways she becomes dependent for her very life on a consanguine or affine male. This is particularly true in cultures in which a woman is not allowed to earn or accumulate her own wealth. Further, lines of patrilineal inheritance tend to be inextricably intertwined with patriarchy within the family, which, in turn, is typically reflected by patriarchy within the leadership and government. This may mean that women are disenfranchised and have no voice in things outside the family.

Fortunately, however, such circumstances are becoming less prevalent with modernization and economic development as less developed societies attempt to catch up economically and socially. However, as long as such circumstances remain, the rights and equality of the disenfranchised will be in jeopardy and true equality will not be achievable. Patterns of descent and inheritance, however, are still at the basis of many cultures. It is important to find ways to overcome inequalities without losing the essential nature of a culture.

Terms & Concepts

Ambilineal Descent: A pattern of cognatic descent in which descent is traced and kinship established through either the female or male line. In ambilineal descent, individuals may select one line (i.e., female or male) to trace descent. However, each generation can also choose the parent through which he or she will trace lineage. Therefore, a family line may be matrilineal in one generation and patrilineal in another generation. Ambilineal descent is not a common pattern of descent.

Bilateral Descent: A pattern of cognatic descent in which descent is traced from all biological ancestors no matter their gender or whether they are in the mother's or father's lineage. In bilateral descent, all children regardless of gender are members of both their mother's and father's families. Bilateral descent is the most common pattern of descent in Europe and the Americas.

Cognatic Descent: A class of nonunilineal descent rules in which both male and female lines are used to determine the kinship relationships between individuals. Cognatic descent patterns typically result in more complex and varied familial relationships than those resulting from unilineal descent rules. There are four variations in cognatic descent rules: ambilineal, bilineal, bilateral, and parallel. The most common pattern of cognatic descent is bilateral descent (also referred to as nonunilineal descent).

Culture: A complex system of meaning and behavior that is socially transmitted and that defines a common way of life for a group or society. Culture includes the totality of behavior patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and other products of human work and thought of the society or group.

Descent: The hereditary derivation or lineage of an individual. Descent comprises socially recognized links between individuals in different generations within a family through several generations.

Economic Development: The sustainable increase in living standards for a nation, region, or society. More than mere economic growth (i.e., a rise in output), economic development is sustainable and positively impacts the well-being of all members of the group members through such things as increased per capita income, education, health, and environmental protection. Economic development is progressive in nature and positively impacts the socioeconomic structure of a society.

Gender: Psychological, social, cultural, and behavioral characteristics associated with being female or male. Gender is defined by one's gender identity and learned gender role.

Kinship: Culturally accepted relationships that define patterns by which individuals can claim to have family ties. Kinship can include those related by birth or common ancestry, marriage, or adoption. Definitions of kinship can vary widely between cultures.

Modernization Theory: A sociological perspective of globalization that posits that less developed countries will eventually industrialize in the manner of more developed countries and that the process of modernization will gradually improve the quality of life of its members due to political and economic forces. Modernization is thought to affect virtually all countries that have been affected by technological change.

Nuclear Family: A family comprising a mother, a father, and their unmarried children who live together.

Parallel Descent: A form of unilineal descent patterns in which males trace their ancestry through the male line and females trace their ancestry through the female line of the family. Each individual is a member of only one descent group (i.e., male or female).

Preindustrial: The nature of a society that has not yet been industrialized. Preindustrial societies tend to be small and family oriented. There are three types of preindustrial societies: hunting and gathering societies, horticultural societies, and agrarian societies.

Society: A distinct group of people who live within the same territory, share a common culture and way of life, and are relatively independent from people outside the group. Society includes systems of social interactions that govern both culture and social organization.

Unilineal Descent: A class of descent rules in which descent is traced through a single line (i.e., male or female). Although males and females are members of a unilineal family and are considered to be kin, descent links are only recognized through relatives of the same gender. Both matrilineal descent (in which descent is traced through the line of one's mother and female ancestors) and patrilineal descent (in which descent is traced through the line of one's father and male ancestors) are types of unilineal descent.

Uxorilocal Marriage: A marriage in which the husband moves in with the wife's household after the wedding.

Bibliography

Breuer, F. (2012). Predecessor-successor transitions in institutional and interpersonal contexts: On the development of a theory of the transfer of personal objects. Historical Social Research, 37 , 223–236. Retrieved October 28, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=83459455&site=ehost-live

Douglas, G., Woodward, H., Humphrey, A., Mills, L., & Morrell, G. (2011). Enduring love? Attitudes to family and inheritance law in England and Wales. Journal of Law & Society, 38 , 245–271. Retrieved October 30, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=60314179&site=ehost-live

Goody, J. R. (1970). Marriage prestations, inheritance and descent in pre-industrial societies. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 1 , 37–52. Retrieved October 9, 2008 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=14253191&site=ehost-live.

Mathew, S. (2011). Gender and right to inheritance of property among the Syrian Christians of Kerala. Rajagiri Journal of Social Development, 3 , 51–76. Retrieved October 30, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=70084066&site=ehost-live

O'Neil, D. (2008). Kinship: An introduction to descent systems and family organizations. Retrieved October 10, 2008 from: http://anthro.palomar.edu/kinship/default.htm

Sangren, P. S. (2013). The Chinese family as instituted fantasy: Or, rescuing kinship imaginaries from the 'symbolic'. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 19, 279–299. Retrieved January 8, 2015 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=87371983&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Vézina, H., Tremblay, M., Lavoie, É., & Labuda, D. (2014). Concordance between reported ethnic origins and ancestral origins of Gaspé Peninsula residents. Population (16342941), 69, 7–27. Retrieved January 8, 2015 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=96791592&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Zhang, H. X. (2003). Gender difference in inheritance rights: Observations from a Chinese village. Journal of Peasant Studies, 30 (3/4), 252–277.

Patterns of Descent and Inheritance

On this Page

Subject Terms

Patterns of Descent and Inheritance

Family & Relationships > Patterns of Descent & Inheritance

Overview

Kinship

Descent

Applications

Inheritance Rights

Viewpoints

Sociological Significance

Terms & Concepts

Bibliography

Suggested Reading