RESEARCH STARTER

Intentional vs. unintentional discrimination

Intentional versus unintentional discrimination refers to the ways in which discriminatory acts can occur, either through conscious actions or unconscious biases. Intentional discrimination is characterized by deliberate actions taken by individuals based on personal prejudices, such as a hiring manager who overtly favors one gender over another for a position. In contrast, unintentional discrimination occurs when individuals engage in discriminatory behavior without awareness of their biases, such as a personnel officer who unknowingly overlooks qualified female candidates.

Discrimination can also manifest at an institutional level, where intentional institutional discrimination arises from the prejudices held by members of an organization. Unintentional institutional discrimination, however, is more complex, as it involves ingrained practices within an institution that perpetuate biases without active intent. Recent debates focus on addressing unintentional institutional discrimination, with some advocating for affirmative action programs and diversity initiatives, while others contend that legal measures alone can rectify workplace inequalities. Understanding these distinctions is crucial for fostering equitable environments and promoting awareness of both overt and subtle forms of discrimination.

Full Article

Four forms of discrimination have been identified by sociologists. The first form is intentional individual discrimination, which is an isolated act of discrimination performed by an individual on the basis of personal prejudice: for example, a male personnel officer who routinely passes over females for supervisory positions because he believes and consciously acts on the belief that “female supervisors mean trouble.” The second form is unintentional individual discrimination, which is an isolated act of discrimination performed unconsciously by an individual. For example, if the personnel officer were unaware of why he was passing over females for supervisory positions, he would be performing an act of unintentional individual discrimination.

The third form, intentional institutional discrimination, occurs when discrimination is based on the personal prejudices of the members of an institution: for example, a male personnel officer who passes over women for supervisory positions because “boys in the company do not like to take orders from women.” The fourth form, unintentional institutional discrimination, is discrimination that is part of the routine behavior of an institution that has unknowingly incorporated sexually or racially prejudicial practices into its operating procedures: for example, a construction company that routinely avoids hiring women because of its assumption that women are incapable of doing heavy construction work.

Discussions of discrimination have focused on unintentional institutional discrimination by suggesting different measures for correcting this form of discrimination in the workplace. Some people believe that this form of discrimination can be corrected only by affirmative action programs, such as diversity, equity, and inclusiveness (DEI) policies. Others argue that these programs are inherently unjust and that workplace discrimination can be corrected through antidiscrimination laws.


Bibliography

Asma, L. J. F. “Implicit Bias as Unintentional Discrimination.” Synthese, vol. 202, no. 5, 2023, p. 129, doi:10.1007/s11229-023-04364-3. Accessed 15 Jan. 2026.

Friedman, Joel Wm. Employment Discrimination. 2nd ed., Wolters, 2014.

Gregory, Raymond F. The Civil Rights Act and the Battle to End Workplace Discrimination: A 50 Year History. Rowman, 2014.

Harris, Fredrick C., and Robert C. Lieberman, editors. Beyond Discrimination. Sage Foundation, 2013.

Kennedy, Randall. For Discrimination: Race, Affirmative Action, and the Law. Pantheon, 2013.

Leite, Adam. “Changing One’s Mind: Self-Conscious Belief and Rational Endorsement.” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research vol. 97, no. 1, 2018, pp. 150-71, philpapers.org/rec/LEICOM-3. Accessed 15 Jan. 2026.

Ward, James D., and Mario Antonio Rivera. Institutional Racism, Organizations & Public Policy. Lang, 2014.

“What to Read, Listen To And Watch to Learn About Institutional Racism.” PBS, 5 Jun. 2020, www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/what-to-read-listen-to-and-watch-to-learn-about-institutional-racism. Accessed 15 Jan. 2026.

Full Article

Four forms of discrimination have been identified by sociologists. The first form is intentional individual discrimination, which is an isolated act of discrimination performed by an individual on the basis of personal prejudice: for example, a male personnel officer who routinely passes over females for supervisory positions because he believes and consciously acts on the belief that “female supervisors mean trouble.” The second form is unintentional individual discrimination, which is an isolated act of discrimination performed unconsciously by an individual. For example, if the personnel officer were unaware of why he was passing over females for supervisory positions, he would be performing an act of unintentional individual discrimination.

The third form, intentional institutional discrimination, occurs when discrimination is based on the personal prejudices of the members of an institution: for example, a male personnel officer who passes over women for supervisory positions because “boys in the company do not like to take orders from women.” The fourth form, unintentional institutional discrimination, is discrimination that is part of the routine behavior of an institution that has unknowingly incorporated sexually or racially prejudicial practices into its operating procedures: for example, a construction company that routinely avoids hiring women because of its assumption that women are incapable of doing heavy construction work.

Discussions of discrimination have focused on unintentional institutional discrimination by suggesting different measures for correcting this form of discrimination in the workplace. Some people believe that this form of discrimination can be corrected only by affirmative action programs, such as diversity, equity, and inclusiveness (DEI) policies. Others argue that these programs are inherently unjust and that workplace discrimination can be corrected through antidiscrimination laws.


Bibliography

Asma, L. J. F. “Implicit Bias as Unintentional Discrimination.” Synthese, vol. 202, no. 5, 2023, p. 129, doi:10.1007/s11229-023-04364-3. Accessed 15 Jan. 2026.

Friedman, Joel Wm. Employment Discrimination. 2nd ed., Wolters, 2014.

Gregory, Raymond F. The Civil Rights Act and the Battle to End Workplace Discrimination: A 50 Year History. Rowman, 2014.

Harris, Fredrick C., and Robert C. Lieberman, editors. Beyond Discrimination. Sage Foundation, 2013.

Kennedy, Randall. For Discrimination: Race, Affirmative Action, and the Law. Pantheon, 2013.

Leite, Adam. “Changing One’s Mind: Self-Conscious Belief and Rational Endorsement.” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research vol. 97, no. 1, 2018, pp. 150-71, philpapers.org/rec/LEICOM-3. Accessed 15 Jan. 2026.

Ward, James D., and Mario Antonio Rivera. Institutional Racism, Organizations & Public Policy. Lang, 2014.

“What to Read, Listen To And Watch to Learn About Institutional Racism.” PBS, 5 Jun. 2020, www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/what-to-read-listen-to-and-watch-to-learn-about-institutional-racism. Accessed 15 Jan. 2026.

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