RESEARCH STARTER

Lebanon

Lebanon is a small but culturally rich country located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It is known for its diverse population, which includes various religious sects, ethnicities, and traditions, contributing to a unique tapestry of cultural heritage. The country has a complex history shaped by its strategic location, serving as a crossroads for various civilizations over millennia. Lebanon's capital, Beirut, is often considered a cultural and intellectual hub of the Arab world, famous for its vibrant arts scene, cuisine, and historical landmarks.

Lebanon has faced significant challenges, particularly in terms of political instability, economic difficulties, and social divisions. The Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990) had a profound impact on the nation, leading to ongoing tensions among its communities. Despite these issues, Lebanon's resilience is evident in its people's strong sense of identity and community. The country is also a notable destination for tourism, with its beautiful landscapes, ancient ruins, and lively urban life attracting visitors worldwide. Understanding Lebanon requires an appreciation of its complex social dynamics and the enduring spirit of its people amidst adversity.

Full Article

Lebanon has been the scene of armed struggle since ancient times, as one power after another has seized control of the country. Modern-day Lebanon is a unique blend of the ancient and the new.

In the twentieth century, Lebanon consisted of a carefully constructed yet peaceful balance between Christian and Muslim populations. The arrival of Palestinian refugees sparked a fifteen-year civil war, which ended only when Syria took control of the country in 1990. There was strong opposition to Syrian rule, but Western powers favored the status quo because violence had declined. In early 2005, following widespread protests, Syria withdrew from Lebanon. In the twenty-first century, although the government of Lebanon is supported by Western powers, wide swaths of the country are controlled and influenced by the fundamentalist Shia Islamic group known as Hezbollah.

“Note: unless otherwise indicated, statistical data in this article is sourced from the CIA World Factbook, as cited in the bibliography.”

People and Culture

Population: Lebanon had a population of 5,364,482 in 2024, with a density of more than 547 people per square kilometer according to World Bank (2021). Most people live in the coastal areas. The country's major cities, all coastal, include Beirut, with a metro population of 2.421 million (2023), Tarabulus (Tripoli), Saida (Sidon), and Sur (Tyre). There are about one million refugees in Lebanon (2021).

About 67.8 percent of the people are Muslim, of which 31.9 percent are Sunni and 31.2 percent are Shia, and 32.4 percent are Christian. Approximately 4.5 percent of the population is Druze. There are also small populations of Jews, Baha'is, Buddhists, Hindus, and Mormons. Lebanon recognizes eighteen religious sects (2020 estimate).

Although the official language is Arabic, French is a widely used second language. English, and Armenian are also spoken.

Lebanon's HDI value for 2023 was 0.752—which put the country in the High human development category—positioning it at 102 out of 193 countries and territories.

Indigenous People: The Lebanese population is 95 percent Arab, although many Christian Lebanese self-identify as Phoenicians rather than Arabs. About 4 percent of the population is Armenian.

Lebanon has one of the largest populations of registered refugees per capita in the world. About 487,000 Palestinian refugees live in Lebanon, mostly in the south (2022). The first refugees came in 1948, after the Arab-Israeli war that established the nation of Israel. Other refugees came after the Six Days' War of 1967. Following the outbreak of civil war in Syria in 2011, more than 1.5 million Syrian refugees fled to Lebanon. In 2023, there were 784,884 Syrian refugees living in Lebabnon

Education: Lebanon has no compulsory school requirement, but primary school is free. According to a 2018 estimate, the country’s literacy rate is 95.1 percent overall.

Primary education begins at age six and lasts for five years, followed by seven years of secondary education.

Almost all secondary and higher education is private. There are forty-one universities in Lebanon. The American University of Beirut (AUB), established in 1866, is world-renowned for its high educational standards. While AUB is secular and offers instruction in English, most universities in the country are religiously affiliated.

Health Care: Lebanon once had an excellent health care system. In fact, at one time, Beirut met the health needs of the entire Middle East. After years of war, however, the Lebanese health care infrastructure was nearly destroyed. Records were rendered missing or incomplete, facilities and staffs became inadequate, and the Ministry of Health ceased to function.

A concerted effort to improve health care in the country continues. Average life expectancy at birth in Lebanon is 77.8 years for men and 80.7 for women (2024 estimate). There are approximately 2.68 doctors for every 1,000 people (2020).

Most hospitals are private, and even in an emergency, a patient must provide proof of insurance or other ability to pay before receiving treatment. Virtually all doctors speak either English or French. The best hospitals are in Beirut, including the American University Hospital.

Food: Popular Lebanese foods include grilled lamb kebabs; kibbe, balls of minced lamb and bulgur wheat; shawarma, which is lamb or chicken carved from a spit; roast chicken; and falafel, fried balls of chickpeas and spices, served in pita bread.

Other common foods include hummus, a dip made of chickpeas and tahini (pureed sesame seeds); tabouleh, a salad of parsley and tomato with bulgur wheat; baba ghanoush, a dip of eggplant and tahini; and fattoush, a minty salad with baked or fried pita-bread crumbs. A favorite dessert is baklava, which is made of phyllo dough layered with honey and walnuts.

Typical Lebanese drinks include red wine, arak (an alcoholic drink made from aniseed), strong Turkish coffee, and hot chai tea.

International restaurants are gaining in popularity in modern Lebanon. Even American fast-food chains may be seen in sections of Beirut.

Arts & Entertainment: Lebanon, which has been called the party capital of the Middle East, offers an active nightlife including bars, nightclubs, and movie theaters.

Prominent Lebanese artists include painters such as Joseph Matar and Husein Madi. Matar paints landscapes, portraits, sacred art, and still life. He has stated that his landscapes attempt to preserve his view of Lebanon before war and modernization destroyed it.

Traditional Lebanese music employs unique instruments such as the tabla (a type of small drum), the oud (a stringed guitar-like instrument), and the ney (a type of flute).

Football (soccer) is a popular sport, and Lebanon has several football leagues. Other popular sports include basketball, cricket, golf, tennis, and skiing in the winter. In past years, Lebanon has hosted the Pan-Arab Games, as well as the Asian Cup football tournament.

Holidays: Muslim holidays, including Ramadan, Muharram (Islamic New Year), Muloud/Yum an-Nabi (marking the birth of Muhammad), and Leilat al-Meiraj (marking the ascension of Muhammad), are widely celebrated in Lebanon.

Other holidays observed in Lebanon include the Feast of St. Maron (February 9) and Independence Day (November 22).

Environment and Geography

Topography: Lebanon is a small country on the eastern end of the Mediterranean. It is roughly wedge-shaped, with the widest part to the north. Lebanon is bounded by Syria on the north and east and by Israel on the south. It is about one-third of the size of the American state of Maryland. Its Mediterranean coastline is 225 kilometers (135 miles) long.

A narrow plain follows the coast, and the Jabal Lubnan (the Lebanon Mountains), composed largely of limestone, lie to the east. El Beqaa (the Bekaa Valley) separates western Lebanon from the northeastern Anti-Lebanon Mountains.

Most of the country is mountainous. The highest peak is Qurnet as Sauda, in the Lebanon Mountains, rising to 3,088 meters (10,131 feet) in the north.

One of Lebanon's major rivers is the Nahr Al-Asi (Orontes), which rises in the Bekaa Valley near Baalbek, and flows north into Syria and Turkey. About 400 kilometers (250 miles) long, the river is mostly unnavigable, but it provides irrigation.

Nahr Al-Litani (the Litani River) flows for 145 kilometers (90 miles) southwest between the mountain ranges and empties into the Mediterranean south of Sidon. The Litani waters the Bekaa Valley, Lebanon's primary agricultural area, and is the only river in the Middle East that does not cross a national boundary.

The Jordan River rises in southern Lebanon and flows into Israel. Like the other rivers, it is used for irrigation rather than for navigation.

Natural Resources: The Lebanon Mountains yield limestone and iron ore. Lebanon's other chief resources include salt, arable land, and water.

Environmental concerns include erosion, desertification, and deforestation throughout the country. In addition, Beirut experiences air pollution caused by traffic and industrial waste-burning. Coastal waters are polluted by raw sewage and oil spills.

Plants & Animals: The mountains of Lebanon are still dotted with huge cedar trees, but not nearly in the same numbers as in ancient times. The most common mountain tree is the oak, along with the walnut, poplar, pine, carob, and locust. There are also some tamarisks, maples, sumacs, and acacias.

The sycamore, which in Lebanon is really a type of inedible-fig tree, grows in the coastal lowlands. Dateless date palms are used for timber.

Juniper and barberry grow in abundance in the eastern mountains while bramble, myrtle, and clematis dominate the slopes in the west. Other common plants include lentisk, arbutus, styrax, jasmine, bay, small-leaved holly, honeysuckle, rhododendron, barberry, oleander, and cypress. Prickly pear, an introduced plant, is often used for hedges.

Common herbs that grow in Lebanon include sage, rosemary, lavender, rue, and wormwood. Among the country's many flowers are varieties of hyacinth, tulip, rose, hollyhock, ranunculus, gladiolus, anemone, crocus, amaryllis, cyclamen, chrysanthemum, blue campanula, and mandrake.

There are few wild animal species left in Lebanon. Those that remain include bears, leopards, wolves, hyenas, jackals, foxes, hares, boars, mongooses, gazelles, squirrels, rats, and moles.

Numerous varieties of birds, however, are found, including eagles, hawks, kites, owls, vultures, falcons, gulls, partridges, linnets, robins, water-ouzels, thrushes, pigeons, woodcocks, and wrens.

A few varieties of freshwater fish live in Lebanon's rivers, while the ocean is home to shellfish and mullet.

Climate: Lebanon is becoming hotter and drier, with higher temperatures, more frequent heatwaves, declining snowfall, and irregular rainfall that intensify water shortages and stress agriculture and ecosystems. Climate conditions vary by altitude: coastal lowlands experience hot, humid summers with little rain and mild, rainy winters; mountain regions receive heavy winter rainfall and snow at higher elevations; and the Bekaa Valley has an arid climate. Beirut, located on the coast at about 30 meters above sea level, records an average temperature of 13 degrees Celsius in January and 27 degrees Celsius in July, with around 89 centimeters of annual precipitation, while Ksara, at 918 meters, averages 7 degrees Celsius in winter and 23 degrees Celsius in summer, receiving about 62 centimeters of precipitation annually.

Economy

Before the civil war of 1975–91, Lebanon acted as an entrepot (a port for receiving and reshipping cargo without paying duties) and banking hub for the Middle East. This position, along with the country's infrastructure, was seriously damaged by the war. Lebanon subsequently borrowed heavily in order to rebuild.

In 2023, Lebanon's gross domestic product (GDP; purchasing power parity) was estimated at US$65.818 billion (2023 dollars). The per capita GDP for the same period was an estimated US$11,300. Lebanon’s unemployment rate was estimated at 11.57 percent in 2023, though the unemployment rate is thought to be much higher among the nation’s poor populations. According to the United Nations, between 2019 and 2021, between an estimated 42 to 82 percent of people in Lebanon lived below the national poverty line.

Industry: Principal industries include banking, tourism, food processing, wine, jewelry, textiles, cement, mineral and chemical products, wood and furniture products, oil refining, and metal fabricating.

Lebanon exports jewelry, base metals, chemicals, consumer goods, foodstuffs, tobacco, construction minerals, electric power machinery and switchgear, textile fibers, and paper. Total exports were estimated at US$11.77 billion in 2023.

Agriculture: About 13.1 percent of Lebanon's land is arable (2023 estimate). Important agricultural products include vegetables, citrus fruit, grapes, apples, olives, and tobacco. Livestock products include cows' milk, sheep, goats, eggs, beef, and veal.

Lower slopes are often covered with vineyards, and extensive olive orchards flourish at higher elevations. Numerous varieties of fruit trees are grown, including apple, pomegranate, citrus, quince, almond, and banana. Mulberry trees are cultivated primarily for the silkworm industry.

Tourism: Lebanon has invested heavily in developing its tourism sector through improved infrastructure, shopping centers, hotels, restaurants, transportation networks, and telecommunications, allowing tourism to remain an important contributor to the national economy despite ongoing regional instability. The country is rich in archaeological and historical heritage, with sites such as Baalbek known in Roman times as Heliopolis and the ancient cities of Anjar, Byblos, and Tyre recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, along with Ouadi Qadisha and the Forest of the Cedars of God. Byblos (Jbeil), one of the world’s oldest continuously inhabited cities, attracts visitors with its archaeological remains and medieval Arab and Crusader artifacts. Ecotourism also plays a key role, drawing travelers to natural landmarks such as the Horsh Ehden Nature Reserve, the Shouf Cedar Forest, the Jeita Grotto, and other protected areas. In addition, Lebanon’s vineyards and wineries, including the wine caves of Ksara and Château Musar, contribute to the country’s appeal as a cultural and leisure destination.

Government

Modern Lebanon incorporates the territory of the ancient Phoenicians. Lebanon was repeatedly devastated but never completely destroyed by the Assyrians, Egyptians, Persians, Babylonians, Greeks, Romans, and Arabs. It was incorporated into the Turkish Ottoman Empire in the sixteenth century.

During the Arab domination of the seventh through the tenth century, Lebanon provided refuge for several religious groups, including Maronite Catholics, Greek Catholics, Greek Orthodox, and Muslims.

After World War I, the Greater Lebanese state was administered by France. Lebanon achieved independence in 1943.

In Lebanese, the Lebanese Republic is known as Al Jumhuriyah al Lubnaniyah. Lubnan, or Lebanon, is the short form. For administrative purposes, the country is organized into eight mohafazat, or governorates.

The unicameral Majlis al-Nuwab, or National Assembly, has 128 members, elected by popular vote. Members serve four-year terms unless the Assembly is dissolved following a vote of no confidence. Seats in the Assembly are apportioned among Christian and Muslim members.

The president is chief of state. The National Assembly elects the president to a six-year term. The prime minister, who is the head of government, is appointed by the president in consultation with the National Assembly.

The prime minister appoints the ministers of the Cabinet, with advice from the president and the National Assembly. The Cabinet, which must have an equal number of Christian and Muslim members, has executive power.

In July 2006, Lebanon’s capital Beirut was bombed extensively by Israeli forces seeking to rout the militant Islamic group Hezbollah on the Israeli-Lebanese border. Forces of the Lebanese government were not involved in the affair, and the government was critical of the United States and other Western powers for not doing more to prevent Israel’s destruction of Beirut’s infrastructure. A cease-fire agreement was reached in order to end the conflict, but border relations remained tense. As Israel carried out a war against Hamas in Gaza beginning in late 2023, it also conducted strikes and a 2024 ground invasion in Lebanon further targeting Hezbollah.

The Supreme Court (Court of Cassation) is comprised of four divisions. Each division has a presiding judge and two association judges, all appointed by the Supreme Judicial Council. The judicial branch also includes the ten-member Constitutional Council, Courts of Appeal, Courts of First Instance; tribunals, religious courts, and military courts.

Interesting Facts

  • Lebanese Arabic is a mixture of Syriac-Aramaic (Assyrian), Arabic, and Turkish (with a few modern English words).
  • Byblos, Lebanon, was first settled about eight thousand years ago.
  • The ancient Phoenician alphabet, the oldest examples of which were found in Byblos, is the basis of the contemporary alphabet.
  • In August 2020, an explosion in Beirut caused at least 218 deaths, 7,000 injuries, and left 300,000 people homeless.

Bibliography

"Beirut and Mount Lebanon Governorates." Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, United Nations, 2016, www.unocha.org/syrian-arab-republic/syria-crisis-regional-overview/lebanon-country-office/beirut-and-mount-lebanon-. Accessed 26 July 2016.

"Human Development Insights." Human Development Reports, United Nations Development Programme, 6 May 2025, hdr.undp.org/data-center/country-insights#/ranks. Accessed 1 Jan. 2026.

"Lebanon." The World Bank, data.worldbank.org/country/lebanon. Accessed 1 Jan. 2026.

"Lebanon." The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 18 Dec. 2025, www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/lebanon/. Accessed 1 Jan. 2026.

"Lebanon." World Health Organization, www.who.int/countries/lbn/. Accessed 1 Jan. 2026.

"Lebanon." United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2023, uis.unesco.org/country/LB. Accessed 1 Dec. 2023.

"Lebanon—2023 Annual Research: Key Highlights." Economic Impact Factsheet, World Travel and Tourism Council, 2023, researchhub.wttc.org/factsheets/lebanon. Accessed 1 Dec. 2023.

"Lebanon: Statistics." United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund, data.unicef.org/country/lbn/. Accessed 1 Jan. 2026.

"Lebanon’s Biennial Transparency Report on Climate Change." United Nations Development Programme, 7 Jan. 2025, www.undp.org/lebanon/publications/lebanons-biennial-transparency-report-climate-change. Accessed 1 Jan. 2026.

"What Is Hezbollah and Why Has It Been Fighting Israel in Lebanon?" BBC, 14 Feb. 2025, www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-67307858. Accessed 9 Jan. 2026.

Full Article

Lebanon has been the scene of armed struggle since ancient times, as one power after another has seized control of the country. Modern-day Lebanon is a unique blend of the ancient and the new.

In the twentieth century, Lebanon consisted of a carefully constructed yet peaceful balance between Christian and Muslim populations. The arrival of Palestinian refugees sparked a fifteen-year civil war, which ended only when Syria took control of the country in 1990. There was strong opposition to Syrian rule, but Western powers favored the status quo because violence had declined. In early 2005, following widespread protests, Syria withdrew from Lebanon. In the twenty-first century, although the government of Lebanon is supported by Western powers, wide swaths of the country are controlled and influenced by the fundamentalist Shia Islamic group known as Hezbollah.

“Note: unless otherwise indicated, statistical data in this article is sourced from the CIA World Factbook, as cited in the bibliography.”

People and Culture

Population: Lebanon had a population of 5,364,482 in 2024, with a density of more than 547 people per square kilometer according to World Bank (2021). Most people live in the coastal areas. The country's major cities, all coastal, include Beirut, with a metro population of 2.421 million (2023), Tarabulus (Tripoli), Saida (Sidon), and Sur (Tyre). There are about one million refugees in Lebanon (2021).

About 67.8 percent of the people are Muslim, of which 31.9 percent are Sunni and 31.2 percent are Shia, and 32.4 percent are Christian. Approximately 4.5 percent of the population is Druze. There are also small populations of Jews, Baha'is, Buddhists, Hindus, and Mormons. Lebanon recognizes eighteen religious sects (2020 estimate).

Although the official language is Arabic, French is a widely used second language. English, and Armenian are also spoken.

Lebanon's HDI value for 2023 was 0.752—which put the country in the High human development category—positioning it at 102 out of 193 countries and territories.

Indigenous People: The Lebanese population is 95 percent Arab, although many Christian Lebanese self-identify as Phoenicians rather than Arabs. About 4 percent of the population is Armenian.

Lebanon has one of the largest populations of registered refugees per capita in the world. About 487,000 Palestinian refugees live in Lebanon, mostly in the south (2022). The first refugees came in 1948, after the Arab-Israeli war that established the nation of Israel. Other refugees came after the Six Days' War of 1967. Following the outbreak of civil war in Syria in 2011, more than 1.5 million Syrian refugees fled to Lebanon. In 2023, there were 784,884 Syrian refugees living in Lebabnon

Education: Lebanon has no compulsory school requirement, but primary school is free. According to a 2018 estimate, the country’s literacy rate is 95.1 percent overall.

Primary education begins at age six and lasts for five years, followed by seven years of secondary education.

Almost all secondary and higher education is private. There are forty-one universities in Lebanon. The American University of Beirut (AUB), established in 1866, is world-renowned for its high educational standards. While AUB is secular and offers instruction in English, most universities in the country are religiously affiliated.

Health Care: Lebanon once had an excellent health care system. In fact, at one time, Beirut met the health needs of the entire Middle East. After years of war, however, the Lebanese health care infrastructure was nearly destroyed. Records were rendered missing or incomplete, facilities and staffs became inadequate, and the Ministry of Health ceased to function.

A concerted effort to improve health care in the country continues. Average life expectancy at birth in Lebanon is 77.8 years for men and 80.7 for women (2024 estimate). There are approximately 2.68 doctors for every 1,000 people (2020).

Most hospitals are private, and even in an emergency, a patient must provide proof of insurance or other ability to pay before receiving treatment. Virtually all doctors speak either English or French. The best hospitals are in Beirut, including the American University Hospital.

Food: Popular Lebanese foods include grilled lamb kebabs; kibbe, balls of minced lamb and bulgur wheat; shawarma, which is lamb or chicken carved from a spit; roast chicken; and falafel, fried balls of chickpeas and spices, served in pita bread.

Other common foods include hummus, a dip made of chickpeas and tahini (pureed sesame seeds); tabouleh, a salad of parsley and tomato with bulgur wheat; baba ghanoush, a dip of eggplant and tahini; and fattoush, a minty salad with baked or fried pita-bread crumbs. A favorite dessert is baklava, which is made of phyllo dough layered with honey and walnuts.

Typical Lebanese drinks include red wine, arak (an alcoholic drink made from aniseed), strong Turkish coffee, and hot chai tea.

International restaurants are gaining in popularity in modern Lebanon. Even American fast-food chains may be seen in sections of Beirut.

Arts & Entertainment: Lebanon, which has been called the party capital of the Middle East, offers an active nightlife including bars, nightclubs, and movie theaters.

Prominent Lebanese artists include painters such as Joseph Matar and Husein Madi. Matar paints landscapes, portraits, sacred art, and still life. He has stated that his landscapes attempt to preserve his view of Lebanon before war and modernization destroyed it.

Traditional Lebanese music employs unique instruments such as the tabla (a type of small drum), the oud (a stringed guitar-like instrument), and the ney (a type of flute).

Football (soccer) is a popular sport, and Lebanon has several football leagues. Other popular sports include basketball, cricket, golf, tennis, and skiing in the winter. In past years, Lebanon has hosted the Pan-Arab Games, as well as the Asian Cup football tournament.

Holidays: Muslim holidays, including Ramadan, Muharram (Islamic New Year), Muloud/Yum an-Nabi (marking the birth of Muhammad), and Leilat al-Meiraj (marking the ascension of Muhammad), are widely celebrated in Lebanon.

Other holidays observed in Lebanon include the Feast of St. Maron (February 9) and Independence Day (November 22).

Environment and Geography

Topography: Lebanon is a small country on the eastern end of the Mediterranean. It is roughly wedge-shaped, with the widest part to the north. Lebanon is bounded by Syria on the north and east and by Israel on the south. It is about one-third of the size of the American state of Maryland. Its Mediterranean coastline is 225 kilometers (135 miles) long.

A narrow plain follows the coast, and the Jabal Lubnan (the Lebanon Mountains), composed largely of limestone, lie to the east. El Beqaa (the Bekaa Valley) separates western Lebanon from the northeastern Anti-Lebanon Mountains.

Most of the country is mountainous. The highest peak is Qurnet as Sauda, in the Lebanon Mountains, rising to 3,088 meters (10,131 feet) in the north.

One of Lebanon's major rivers is the Nahr Al-Asi (Orontes), which rises in the Bekaa Valley near Baalbek, and flows north into Syria and Turkey. About 400 kilometers (250 miles) long, the river is mostly unnavigable, but it provides irrigation.

Nahr Al-Litani (the Litani River) flows for 145 kilometers (90 miles) southwest between the mountain ranges and empties into the Mediterranean south of Sidon. The Litani waters the Bekaa Valley, Lebanon's primary agricultural area, and is the only river in the Middle East that does not cross a national boundary.

The Jordan River rises in southern Lebanon and flows into Israel. Like the other rivers, it is used for irrigation rather than for navigation.

Natural Resources: The Lebanon Mountains yield limestone and iron ore. Lebanon's other chief resources include salt, arable land, and water.

Environmental concerns include erosion, desertification, and deforestation throughout the country. In addition, Beirut experiences air pollution caused by traffic and industrial waste-burning. Coastal waters are polluted by raw sewage and oil spills.

Plants & Animals: The mountains of Lebanon are still dotted with huge cedar trees, but not nearly in the same numbers as in ancient times. The most common mountain tree is the oak, along with the walnut, poplar, pine, carob, and locust. There are also some tamarisks, maples, sumacs, and acacias.

The sycamore, which in Lebanon is really a type of inedible-fig tree, grows in the coastal lowlands. Dateless date palms are used for timber.

Juniper and barberry grow in abundance in the eastern mountains while bramble, myrtle, and clematis dominate the slopes in the west. Other common plants include lentisk, arbutus, styrax, jasmine, bay, small-leaved holly, honeysuckle, rhododendron, barberry, oleander, and cypress. Prickly pear, an introduced plant, is often used for hedges.

Common herbs that grow in Lebanon include sage, rosemary, lavender, rue, and wormwood. Among the country's many flowers are varieties of hyacinth, tulip, rose, hollyhock, ranunculus, gladiolus, anemone, crocus, amaryllis, cyclamen, chrysanthemum, blue campanula, and mandrake.

There are few wild animal species left in Lebanon. Those that remain include bears, leopards, wolves, hyenas, jackals, foxes, hares, boars, mongooses, gazelles, squirrels, rats, and moles.

Numerous varieties of birds, however, are found, including eagles, hawks, kites, owls, vultures, falcons, gulls, partridges, linnets, robins, water-ouzels, thrushes, pigeons, woodcocks, and wrens.

A few varieties of freshwater fish live in Lebanon's rivers, while the ocean is home to shellfish and mullet.

Climate: Lebanon is becoming hotter and drier, with higher temperatures, more frequent heatwaves, declining snowfall, and irregular rainfall that intensify water shortages and stress agriculture and ecosystems. Climate conditions vary by altitude: coastal lowlands experience hot, humid summers with little rain and mild, rainy winters; mountain regions receive heavy winter rainfall and snow at higher elevations; and the Bekaa Valley has an arid climate. Beirut, located on the coast at about 30 meters above sea level, records an average temperature of 13 degrees Celsius in January and 27 degrees Celsius in July, with around 89 centimeters of annual precipitation, while Ksara, at 918 meters, averages 7 degrees Celsius in winter and 23 degrees Celsius in summer, receiving about 62 centimeters of precipitation annually.

Economy

Before the civil war of 1975–91, Lebanon acted as an entrepot (a port for receiving and reshipping cargo without paying duties) and banking hub for the Middle East. This position, along with the country's infrastructure, was seriously damaged by the war. Lebanon subsequently borrowed heavily in order to rebuild.

In 2023, Lebanon's gross domestic product (GDP; purchasing power parity) was estimated at US$65.818 billion (2023 dollars). The per capita GDP for the same period was an estimated US$11,300. Lebanon’s unemployment rate was estimated at 11.57 percent in 2023, though the unemployment rate is thought to be much higher among the nation’s poor populations. According to the United Nations, between 2019 and 2021, between an estimated 42 to 82 percent of people in Lebanon lived below the national poverty line.

Industry: Principal industries include banking, tourism, food processing, wine, jewelry, textiles, cement, mineral and chemical products, wood and furniture products, oil refining, and metal fabricating.

Lebanon exports jewelry, base metals, chemicals, consumer goods, foodstuffs, tobacco, construction minerals, electric power machinery and switchgear, textile fibers, and paper. Total exports were estimated at US$11.77 billion in 2023.

Agriculture: About 13.1 percent of Lebanon's land is arable (2023 estimate). Important agricultural products include vegetables, citrus fruit, grapes, apples, olives, and tobacco. Livestock products include cows' milk, sheep, goats, eggs, beef, and veal.

Lower slopes are often covered with vineyards, and extensive olive orchards flourish at higher elevations. Numerous varieties of fruit trees are grown, including apple, pomegranate, citrus, quince, almond, and banana. Mulberry trees are cultivated primarily for the silkworm industry.

Tourism: Lebanon has invested heavily in developing its tourism sector through improved infrastructure, shopping centers, hotels, restaurants, transportation networks, and telecommunications, allowing tourism to remain an important contributor to the national economy despite ongoing regional instability. The country is rich in archaeological and historical heritage, with sites such as Baalbek known in Roman times as Heliopolis and the ancient cities of Anjar, Byblos, and Tyre recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, along with Ouadi Qadisha and the Forest of the Cedars of God. Byblos (Jbeil), one of the world’s oldest continuously inhabited cities, attracts visitors with its archaeological remains and medieval Arab and Crusader artifacts. Ecotourism also plays a key role, drawing travelers to natural landmarks such as the Horsh Ehden Nature Reserve, the Shouf Cedar Forest, the Jeita Grotto, and other protected areas. In addition, Lebanon’s vineyards and wineries, including the wine caves of Ksara and Château Musar, contribute to the country’s appeal as a cultural and leisure destination.

Government

Modern Lebanon incorporates the territory of the ancient Phoenicians. Lebanon was repeatedly devastated but never completely destroyed by the Assyrians, Egyptians, Persians, Babylonians, Greeks, Romans, and Arabs. It was incorporated into the Turkish Ottoman Empire in the sixteenth century.

During the Arab domination of the seventh through the tenth century, Lebanon provided refuge for several religious groups, including Maronite Catholics, Greek Catholics, Greek Orthodox, and Muslims.

After World War I, the Greater Lebanese state was administered by France. Lebanon achieved independence in 1943.

In Lebanese, the Lebanese Republic is known as Al Jumhuriyah al Lubnaniyah. Lubnan, or Lebanon, is the short form. For administrative purposes, the country is organized into eight mohafazat, or governorates.

The unicameral Majlis al-Nuwab, or National Assembly, has 128 members, elected by popular vote. Members serve four-year terms unless the Assembly is dissolved following a vote of no confidence. Seats in the Assembly are apportioned among Christian and Muslim members.

The president is chief of state. The National Assembly elects the president to a six-year term. The prime minister, who is the head of government, is appointed by the president in consultation with the National Assembly.

The prime minister appoints the ministers of the Cabinet, with advice from the president and the National Assembly. The Cabinet, which must have an equal number of Christian and Muslim members, has executive power.

In July 2006, Lebanon’s capital Beirut was bombed extensively by Israeli forces seeking to rout the militant Islamic group Hezbollah on the Israeli-Lebanese border. Forces of the Lebanese government were not involved in the affair, and the government was critical of the United States and other Western powers for not doing more to prevent Israel’s destruction of Beirut’s infrastructure. A cease-fire agreement was reached in order to end the conflict, but border relations remained tense. As Israel carried out a war against Hamas in Gaza beginning in late 2023, it also conducted strikes and a 2024 ground invasion in Lebanon further targeting Hezbollah.

The Supreme Court (Court of Cassation) is comprised of four divisions. Each division has a presiding judge and two association judges, all appointed by the Supreme Judicial Council. The judicial branch also includes the ten-member Constitutional Council, Courts of Appeal, Courts of First Instance; tribunals, religious courts, and military courts.

Interesting Facts

  • Lebanese Arabic is a mixture of Syriac-Aramaic (Assyrian), Arabic, and Turkish (with a few modern English words).
  • Byblos, Lebanon, was first settled about eight thousand years ago.
  • The ancient Phoenician alphabet, the oldest examples of which were found in Byblos, is the basis of the contemporary alphabet.
  • In August 2020, an explosion in Beirut caused at least 218 deaths, 7,000 injuries, and left 300,000 people homeless.

Bibliography

"Beirut and Mount Lebanon Governorates." Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, United Nations, 2016, www.unocha.org/syrian-arab-republic/syria-crisis-regional-overview/lebanon-country-office/beirut-and-mount-lebanon-. Accessed 26 July 2016.

"Human Development Insights." Human Development Reports, United Nations Development Programme, 6 May 2025, hdr.undp.org/data-center/country-insights#/ranks. Accessed 1 Jan. 2026.

"Lebanon." The World Bank, data.worldbank.org/country/lebanon. Accessed 1 Jan. 2026.

"Lebanon." The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 18 Dec. 2025, www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/lebanon/. Accessed 1 Jan. 2026.

"Lebanon." World Health Organization, www.who.int/countries/lbn/. Accessed 1 Jan. 2026.

"Lebanon." United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2023, uis.unesco.org/country/LB. Accessed 1 Dec. 2023.

"Lebanon—2023 Annual Research: Key Highlights." Economic Impact Factsheet, World Travel and Tourism Council, 2023, researchhub.wttc.org/factsheets/lebanon. Accessed 1 Dec. 2023.

"Lebanon: Statistics." United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund, data.unicef.org/country/lbn/. Accessed 1 Jan. 2026.

"Lebanon’s Biennial Transparency Report on Climate Change." United Nations Development Programme, 7 Jan. 2025, www.undp.org/lebanon/publications/lebanons-biennial-transparency-report-climate-change. Accessed 1 Jan. 2026.

"What Is Hezbollah and Why Has It Been Fighting Israel in Lebanon?" BBC, 14 Feb. 2025, www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-67307858. Accessed 9 Jan. 2026.

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