Beirut, Lebanon

Beirut is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. Once referred to as "the Pearl of the Middle East," it has been considered by many to be the most Westernized city in the Arab world. The Lebanese Civil War, which occurred between 1975 and 1990, greatly damaged the city, and later conflicts also took their toll. Beirut has nevertheless managed to rebuild and retain much of its original character, thus earning it the nickname "The City That Would Not Die." Beirut is one of the oldest cities in the world, and has been the site of many important archeological finds.

Landscape

Beirut is located atop the Al-Ashrafiyah and Al-Musaytibah hills, which are home to East Beirut and West Beirut, respectively. The city sits on a peninsula in the Mediterranean Sea, at the foot of the Lebanon Mountains, and covers an area of about 67 square kilometres (26 square miles).

Beirut has experienced notable climate changes in recent years, marked by rising average temperatures and a significant decline in precipitation raising growing concerns about water scarcity. Extreme weather events, including heatwaves and storms, have also become more frequent. Despite these shifts, Beirut typically has a warm, humid subtropical climate, with summer temperatures reaching up to 41 degrees Celsius (105 degrees Fahrenheit) from May to November. Winters, spanning December to April, are generally cool and rainy, though snowfall remains rare. The city receives an average annual rainfall of approximately 914 millimeters (36 inches).

Additionally, the surge in diesel generator usage amid Lebanon’s ongoing crises has significantly worsened air pollution, contributing to serious public health concerns, according to the research published by scientists at American University of Beirut (AUB). In response, the Lebanese government introduced Law 78/2018 and a National Air Quality Management Strategy to curb emissions and improve monitoring.

During its inclusion in the Ottoman Empire, Beirut was meticulously planned, even while it expanded and grew tremendously. However, very little of the original city remains in its original form. After 1943, expansion became increasingly disorganized and confused. Following the civil war, the city’s urban planning suffered significant setbacks, resulting in a diverse architectural landscape that reflects its complex history and rapid reconstruction efforts. It is not unusual to see a wide range of building types on a single block, from high-rise apartment buildings to fancy villas and houses. Because much of the fighting during the civil war took place in the city centre, much of the city could not be rebuilt until after the war, and thus, very few of Beirut's original streets and structures remain.

People

According to Central Administration of Statistics (Lebanon), Beirut is the most populous city in Lebanon, although no official census has been conducted since 1932 due to political and sectarian sensitivities. The CIA World Factbook estimated the population of the Beirut urban area at around 2.421 million in 2023. Beirut's population grew from 45,000 to 90,000 between 1840 and 1860, and then later grew tenfold in the period between 1930 and 1970. Most Beirutis are trilingual, speaking Arabic, English, and French. While comprehensive ethnic data is lacking, the city is home to Arabs, Syrians, Armenians, Kurds and others, with religion being the most visible demographic marker.

Beirut is one of the most religiously diverse cities in the Middle East, home to numerous Christian and Muslim denominations, as well as Druze and a small Jewish population. In some neighbourhoods, churches and mosques stand just across the street from one another. The city is primarily composed of eight major religious communities such as Sunni Muslims, Shia Muslims, Druze, Maronite Catholics, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholics, Armenian Orthodox, and Armenian Catholics, along with a Protestant minority. Although some estimates suggest the presence of a secular or non-religious population, limited data makes it difficult to quantify.

During the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990), Beirut was sharply divided along religious lines, with Sunni Muslims primarily residing in West Beirut and Christians in East Beirut. The southern districts of the city became predominantly Shia Muslim.

Economy

Beirut has long been a key coastal hub for trade and business, supported by one of the largest ports in the Eastern Mediterranean and a strong financial and service sector. However, the civil war severely impacted its economy, causing many businesses to relocate and disrupting basic services. Despite these challenges, Beirut developed a thriving publishing industry, known for its diverse, multilingual output and relative press freedom. Unlike other sectors, publishing flourished during the civil war and became one of the city's major industries, serving as a key source of news for the wider Arab world.

Beirut’s economy has experienced a profound downturn since 2019. According to the World Bank report, by the end of 2024, Lebanon’s GDP had contracted by nearly 40 percent, exacerbated by the 14-month conflict with Israel, which alone resulted in US$14 billion in damages and economic losses. The Lebanese pound has lost more than 98 percent of its value, resulting in hyperinflation and a severe drop in purchasing power. Infrastructure and public services have weakened, the banking sector has collapsed, and over 80 percent of the population is now living in multidimensional poverty. While tourism and remittances provide some economic relief, they are not sufficient to spur a full economic recovery.

Landmarks

Beirut is rich with artefacts and ruins of the ancient civilizations that once ruled there. One of the more striking sites in Beirut is the group of five columns, which are believed to date from the first century BCE when Beirut was a Roman colony. The columns were discovered in 1963 near the St. George Maronite Cathedral. Another relic from the Roman period is a Roman bath that once served the whole town. Portions of a wall and castle built by the Crusaders were excavated in 1995; evidence that Roman structures were incorporated into the Crusaders' buildings was also found.

The Hamidiyyeh Clock Tower, built in 1897 and restored in 1994, is one of Beirut's most recognizable landmarks. Nearby is a former barracks, called the Grand Serail, which also once served as the governor's headquarters during the French Mandate. The Grand Serail has been the Governmental Palace since Lebanon's independence. Also nearby is the Ottoman Military Hospital, which has been renovated and turned into the headquarters for the Council for Development and Reconstruction.

Beirut is home to several historic mosques, such as the Al-Omari Mosque, which was once the Cathedral of St. John during the Crusader period. Similarly, the Amir Assaf Mosque was built on the former site of the Byzantine Church of the Holy Savior. Like the Crusader Castle, the Amir Munzer Mosque incorporates remaining elements from the ancient Roman structures. Other landmarks include several churches, such as the Greek-Orthodox Cathedral of Saint George, which, prior to the civil wars, was the oldest functioning church in Beirut. Much of the church, including many of its interior decorations which dated to its construction in 1767, was destroyed during the fighting.

Raouché, and its trademark Pigeon Rocks, is a popular natural landmark located on Beirut's westernmost tip. The Pigeon Rocks are large formations that stand near the site of excavations that revealed the oldest evidence of human existence in Beirut. Cliffside restaurants jut out over the water nearby, and the American University of Beirut's Archaeological Museum displays many of the tools used by archeologists. The Corniche, a promenade with a clear view of Pigeon Rocks, is one of the city's few green spaces, and is a perfect vantage point for observing the coastline, as well as the daily activities of Beirutis.

History

Settlements on the land now occupied by Beirut date back at least five thousand years, when the area was made up of two islands on the Beirut River delta. Eventually, the delta filled with silt and the two islands were unified. The area was a natural and ideal location for settlements because of the abundance of fresh water and fish. References to the city date back as far as the fifteenth century BCE, and historians believe the city was inhabited even prior to this.

Circa 64 BCE, a Roman general named Marcus Agrippa conquered "Berytus," as it was then known (the ancient city has also been variously referred to as Birut, Birrayyuna, and Birrayat), and the city became a colony of Rome. Agrippa renamed the city Colonia Julia Augusta Felix Berytus, in honor of the Roman emperor's daughter. The city took on a distinctive Roman character during its time as a Roman colony, and flourished for hundreds of years. Beirut was famous throughout the world for its school of law.

The confluence of an earthquake, a tsunami, and a massive fire destroyed most of the city in 551 CE. About thirty thousand Beirutis died, sending the city into a decline from which it would take centuries to recover. With the city in this weakened state, Arab Muslims easily captured the city in 635, retaining their rule over the city until 1110, when the Crusaders invaded. The Crusaders, led by Baldwin I of Boulogne, occupied the city, ruling it as a Christian nation for seventy-seven years. The city was passed back and forth between the Crusaders and various Muslim groups for decades, until July 1291, when the Muslim Mamelukes (a powerful military group) wrested control of the city from the Crusaders.

The Mamelukes dominated the city for more than two centuries before being conquered by the Ottoman army in 1516. The enormity of the Ottoman Empire allowed Beirut to enjoy a great deal of autonomy while also enjoying the benefits of existing within a much larger entity. One of the Beiruti emirs, Fakhr ad-Din, began trading with European cities, particularly Venice. Eventually, the Ottoman sultan grew wary of Fakhr ad-Din's power and influence; he had ad-Din executed in 1635. Fakhr ad-Din's death caused a temporary decline in Beirut's economy, which continued to fluctuate throughout the eighteenth century and early nineteenth century, before the city finally settled into a period of sustained growth. In 1868, the American University of Beirut was founded, and has since become one of the most prestigious universities in the Middle East.

During World War I (1914–8), the Allied Powers, which included Britain and France, built a blockade around Beirut to prevent food from reaching the Turkish Army, who would thus be forced to surrender. Unfortunately, the entire population of Beirut was also denied food, and a famine and subsequent plague eventually killed about one-quarter of the population. The war ended Turkish rule in Beirut, but quickly replaced the Ottomans with the French. The Allied Powers occupied Beirut during World War II (1939–45) and the city served as an important supply port for the Allied effort. After the war in 1946, the French left the city, after making it the capital of greater Lebanon. For almost thirty years, Beirut prospered in its new status, becoming a major commercial and banking center.

In 1970, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) moved its headquarters to Beirut. The PLO had a running conflict with Israel, and the presence of the PLO added to the tension in the city. Beginning in 1975, the city fell into a vicious civil war, with religious militias ruling different parts of the city and fighting constantly, using the whole city as their battleground. The year 1983 was particularly bloody: one thousand Palestinians were killed in a clash with Lebanese Christians, followed by a bombing of the US embassy in Beirut, which killed fifty people. Six months after the explosion, another explosion was carried out in a military compound, killing more than two hundred US marines and sixty French soldiers. Although West Beirut sustained most of the damage in the war, East Beirut suffered heavy damages. Eventually, in 1990, the militias withdrew and returned control of the city to the national government.

When the long civil war ended in 1991, archeologists in Beirut began searching for archeological artifacts, which had to that point only ever been found accidentally. They hoped to find evidence of the several empires that had ruled Beirut in the past before the city's extensive reconstruction finished. By 1993, a partnership between archeologists and builders had uncovered evidence of Beirut's Ottoman, Mameluke, Crusader, Abbassid, Omayyad, Byzantine, Roman, Persian, Phoenician, and Canaanite incarnations. During the reconstruction, which covered 1.8 million square meters (445 acres), 250 buildings in the city center were rebuilt, and many new buildings were constructed.

Beirut saw new upheavals in the early twenty-first century, starting with the assassination of popular Lebanese prime minister Rafik Hariri in 2005, which led to the Cedar Revolution, a series of nonviolent protests in Lebanon, centered in Beirut. In 2006, however, a month-long war broke out between the Lebanese Islamist group Hezbollah and Israel, with Israel targeting many sites in southern Lebanon, including Beirut International Airport and the Beirut-Damascus highway. Instability continued in the country until a 2008 agreement resulted in the formation of a new government. The city was beset by occasional terrorist attacks in the ensuing years, reflecting continuing political divisions in the country and across the region.

By 2020 Lebanon as a whole faced a major economic and political crisis, with a currency collapse and sharply rising prices for everyday goods. As the nation's economic center, Beirut was heavily impacted, and widespread protests were held throughout the city. The crisis was then exacerbated by the global COVID-19 pandemic. Lockdowns and social distancing threatened the capital's famous—and famously resilient—nightlife.

A major tragedy then occurred in August 2020, when a massive explosion ripped through downtown Beirut. While details behind the cause of blast were not immediately clear, it was linked to a stockpile of over 2,700 tons of ammonium nitrate that had been seized in the port years earlier and stored in a warehouse without proper safety precautions. Early estimates counted over one hundred dead and thousands injured in the explosion; approximately 300,000 people were thought to be displaced due to the widespread destruction. The blast, considered one of the largest non-nuclear explosions in world history, was eventually considered to be the result of an accident rather than a bombing. The casualties were said to include at least 190 dead and over 6,000 injured. The incident drove further support for protests in the city and throughout the country, and led to the resignation of Prime Minister Hassan Diab and his parliamentary cabinet.

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