Syria

The Syrian Arab Republic, or Syria, is a Middle Eastern country bordered by Turkey, Iraq, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, and the Mediterranean Sea. Despite contentious relations with many of its neighbors, Syria's government has long subscribed to a political ideal that would unify all countries in the Arab world into a powerful regional force, a concept known as pan-Arabism.

Like other Middle Eastern countries, Syria has a complex modern culture informed by a patchwork of diverse people. The country is home to some of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. The nation's long and complicated political history, particularly its decades of rule under the autocratic government of the al-Assad family, has played into modern conflicts, including the Syrian Civil War and operations against terrorist groups such as the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS). The ongoing violence and associated humanitarian crises have harmed the country socially and economically.

Note: unless otherwise indicated, statistical data in this article is sourced from the CIA World Factbook, as cited in the bibliography.

People and Culture

Population: Syria has an ethnically diverse population. Arabs make up 50 percent of the population. The Alawites are the largest minority, followed by the Kurds, who generally occupy rural areas. The Alawites practice a unique form of Islam, the precepts of which are largely kept secret. Once repressed, their lot improved starting in the 1980s since the major politicians of that period, including the al-Assad family, came from this minority; however, they became of the main targets of the terror group ISIS. They generally live in rural areas of the province of Lattakia. Armenians, Jews, and Palestinian refugees are also represented in the Syrian population. The Bedouin, nomadic tribesmen who tend livestock, have decreased greatly in number as the government has sought to make them settle.

Population density is highest in the western portion of the country, especially the coastal plain. The Syrian Desert, in the southeast, is the least dense. Over half of the population lives in urban centers, though the civil war caused significant population shifts. Damascus (the capital) is the largest city, with an estimated population of 2.585 million in 2023, followed by Aleppo at 2.203 million. Other major population centers include Homs (Hims), Hamah, and Lattakia.

Islam is the dominant religion, practiced by about 87 percent of the population; about 74 percent of the population adheres to Sunni Islam. Sunnis are found throughout the country and form a majority in most regions. Other Muslim sects include the Druze and the Ismailis. Christians are the largest religious minority. Greek Orthodox, Syrian Orthodox, Armenian Orthodox, and Nestorians are four of the Christian sects. The Christian and Jewish populations tend to inhabit urban centers, although both of these populations were disrupted as members of these communities fled Syria during the Syrian Civil War.

The vast majority of the Syrian population speaks Arabic, a Semitic language. Arabic can be divided into three forms: classical Arabic, the language of the Qu’ran; Modern Standard Arabic, which is used on the radio and in newspapers throughout the Arab world; and the dialect or dialects spoken in each Arab country. Syrian Arabic, which shares characteristics with Lebanese Arabic, varies throughout the country. The differences of grammar, accent, and colloquialisms within the dialect are such that the origins of the speaker are discernible.

Syria has a life expectancy at birth of about 76.4 years for females and 73.4 years for males (2024 estimates). Based on 2023 data, the country ranked 162 out of 193 countries on the United Nations Human Development Index.

Indigenous People: Most ethnic groups represented in Syria have long histories in the country itself or in the region. The modern population largely lacks a national identity and is divided by ethnicity, rural versus urban backgrounds and, above all, religious affiliation. Loyalty is typically given to one's family and group rather than to an overarching national ideal, and there is often extreme distrust between groups. The government has attempted some Arabization of non-Arab groups, but in general the groups hold to their native customs and beliefs.

Education: Primary education, lasting nine years and divided into lower and higher levels, is free and compulsory. It is followed by three years of secondary education. There is also vocational training at the secondary level.

The overall adult literacy rate was estimated at 94.4 percent in 2021 and is higher for males (97.2 percent) than for females (91.8 percent). This figure shows a marked improvement from the early 1980s, when an intense government-sponsored literacy campaign began.

Among the best-known universities in Syria are Damascus University, University of Aleppo, Tishreen University in Latakia, and Al-Baath University in Homs.

Health Care: Syria has a socialized medical system that extends health care to all of its citizens for free or at nominal cost. The Ministry of Health also restricts the prices charged by private hospitals. Both state-run and private hospitals are concentrated in the major urban centers, so the rural population receives less adequate medical care, generally from basic health clinics. Overall, Syria suffers from a shortage of doctors, nurses, and dentists.

Food: Syrian cuisine shares common features with other Arabic and Mediterranean cuisines, both in terms of the fresh ingredients that are used and in individual dishes. Lunch and dinner often begin with appetizers, called mezze, and are followed by a meat dish, usually grilled lamb. Popular appetizers include hummus, a paste made of ground chickpeas; baba ganouj, an eggplant dish; and kibbeh, minced lamb enclosed in a burghul wheat shell. Meals are served with flat bread. Coffee and tea are popular after-dinner drinks, while baklava is a common dessert.

Arts & Entertainment: Syria shares a common culture with other Arab countries. The single most important literary work is the Qu’ran, which has given rise to unique achievements in architecture, both religious and domestic, as well as a strong oral tradition and deeply ingrained customs such as hospitality. Historically Syria has also had a lively cafe culture, with men meeting to drink coffee or tea, smoke flavored tobacco from a water pipe, and play backgammon and cards. Storytellers have often performed in cafes, as well. Among the folk arts practiced in Syria are embroidery, ceramics, and metal-work.

Syrian literature is largely unknown in the West and it has not been widely translated. Among the country's foremost authors, some of whose books are available in English, are Hanna Mina, Zakariya Tamer, Halim Barakat, and Ulfat Idilbi.

Annual festivals have included the Bosra Festival of Music and Dance and the Palmyra Festival, which entailed camel and horse races and traditional singing and dancing. An international film festival and a theatre festival are also held in Damascus.

Holidays: Many of Syria's holidays are religious in nature and accord with the Islamic calendar. The most important celebrations are the fasting month of Ramadan, ending with Eid al-Fitr, when people gather for feasts and wear new clothes. Eid al-Adha is celebrated in a similar way and commemorates Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his son Isaac. Muharram commemorates the flight of Mohammed and his followers from Medina to Mecca, and initiates the Muslim New Year.

The most important secular holidays are Evacuation Day (April 17), commemorating the French withdrawal from Syria at the end of the mandate period, and Martyrs' Day (May 6), which marks the struggle for independence from the Ottoman Turks.

Environment and Geography

Topography: Syrian territory consists of several zones. The coastal zone that runs 193 kilometers (120 miles) along the Mediterranean is 32 kilometers (20 miles) wide, and is characterized by promontories and sand dunes. Two mountain ranges run parallel to this zone: the low Jebel an Nusayriyah and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, which continue along the border with Lebanon and terminate in the hills of the Golan Heights. Mount Hermon, Syria's highest point, rises 2,814 meters (9,232 feet) from this range.

The rest of Syria is a large plateau containing the northern plain of Al Jazirah, the Euphrates River basin, and several desert areas such as the southeastern Syrian Desert and the Homs Desert. The Euphrates River, which flows into Syria from Turkey then into Iraq, is the country's longest river. The Euphrates and its tributaries feed some of the richest agricultural land in the country. Lake Assad is a man-made reservoir utilizing the waters of the Euphrates. Arram and Mzerib are Syria's only two natural lakes.

There are also several oases in Syria. The most important, fed by the Barada River, is the Al Ghutah Oasis. Measuring 370 square kilometers (143 square miles), it has supported the city of Damascus since ancient times.

Natural Resources: Syria has modest reserves of crude oil and natural gas. Minerals found in large quantities are phosphate, salt, and asphalt. Sand, gypsum and stone have also been mined for construction materials. One of the country's most important natural resources is fertile land.

Among the environmental problems that Syria is facing are industrial pollution of rivers, untreated waste water from urban centers, and poor land management. The latter problem has led to soil erosion and desertification and threatens vital ecosystems such as the Al Ghutah oasis, which is decreasing in size.

Plants & Animals: Syria is not rich in animal life. Common animals include hyenas, foxes, jackals, rabbits, and gazelle. Wild boar can be found in mountain forests. Among the bird species are falcons, eagles, and various types of wetland birds that breed in the country's river basins. In 2015, the northern bald ibis was faced with possible extinction during the capture of the desert city of Palmyra, however, it was considered endangered into the 2020s.

Syria also has a limited range of vegetation. Much of the land supports grass and shrub and, in less dry areas, scattered trees. During a brief period in the spring, these areas are generally covered with wild flowers. The largest forests, which comprise only 2.7 percent of the total land, are found in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains. Oak, pine, fir, and cypress trees grow there. Along the Mediterranean coast grasses, shrubs, and a few trees are found, while oases support palm and banana trees.

Climate: Climate change has intensified heat extremes and prolonged droughts across Syria. Traditionally, the country experiences hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. The highest levels of precipitation occur along the Mediterranean coast and in mountainous regions, with a rainy season that generally extends from October through May. Rainfall declines steadily eastward into desert areas, where arid conditions dominate. Snowfall occurs in higher elevations, while sandstorms and droughts are common in many regions.

In Damascus, located in the southwest, average summer high temperatures reach about 37 degrees celsius (99 degrees Fahrenheit), while average winter lows fall to around 2 degrees celsius (36 degrees Fahrenheit). Aleppo, in the northwest, experiences similar temperature ranges but receives greater annual rainfall. In eastern desert regions, summer temperatures can exceed 39 degrees celsius (102 degrees Fahrenheit).

Economy

Armed conflict in Syria has damaged the country's economy and also complicated efforts to collect reliable data. The Syrian gross domestic product (GDP, purchasing power parity) was estimated at US$98.858 billion, a few years into the Syrian Civil War; per capita GDP that year stood at $4,200 (2023 est.). Unemployment was estimated at 13 percent in 2024. Far fewer women than men are employed overall, particularly in urban areas. The country's major export markets are Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Egypt, United Arab Emirates, Jordan, and Kuwait. For several decades, the Syrian economy was largely state controlled. However, in the 1990s, the government started encouraging more private enterprises.

Syria has a small but economically significant industrial sector. The processing of textiles, building materials, automobiles, tobacco, and food and beverages are all part of the industrial sector. Of these the largest is textiles, yielding products made of cotton, silk, and wool.

Oil has been a major export for several decades, though the oil is not of the highest quality and the reserves being exploited might soon be exhausted. Syria also gains revenue by having oil pipelines run across its territory. The natural gas industry, smaller than the oil industry, is also important.

Agriculture: Agriculture accounted for a small portion of GDP throughout the 2010s, though Syria's climate does not create ideal growing conditions. More than one-quarter of the land area is arable, and the potential for irrigation projects in currently fallow areas could lead to greater land development. The government has implemented programs to discourage poor soil management, since reliance on fertilizers and failure to rotate crops has decreased the land's productivity.

Major crops include cotton, wheat, barley, dates, lentils, beets, and olives. Sheep, cattle, and chickens are common livestock, and camels and mules are used as beasts of burden.

Tourism: Syria’s tourism sector showed gradual improvement before the outbreak of civil conflict in 2011, after which prolonged instability and extremist violence sharply reduced visitor activity well into the following decade. Ongoing insecurity and damage to infrastructure have continued to limit tourism development.

Many of Syria’s most notable attractions are archaeological and historical sites, with artifacts displayed in major institutions such as the National Museum of Damascus. Prominent locations include the ancient city of Ugarit, the Roman ruins of Apamea, the well-preserved amphitheater at Bosra, and the remains of Palmyra, which suffered extensive destruction during periods of militant control. Other significant sites include the early Christian settlements known as the Dead Cities, the Church of St. Simeon the Stylite, and the medieval fortress Krak des Chevaliers. Several cultural landmarks experienced damage or loss during years of conflict.

Historic quarters in cities such as Damascus, Aleppo, and Hama showcase religious and residential architecture, while traditional covered markets in Damascus and Aleppo remain distinctive features. Hama is known for large wooden water wheels powered by the Orontes River. In Damascus, the Umayyad Mosque stands out as a major religious and architectural landmark, built on a site that previously held both a Roman temple and a Christian church.

Government

Syria began the twentieth century under Ottoman rule. Following the dissolution of the empire, it came under the rule of the French. This period, known as the French Mandate Period, lasted until the end of World War II in 1945. A period of instability followed, marked by political tensions within Syria and with its neighbors. In 1970, General Hafez al-Assad, who belonged to the Alawite minority, took power of the country in a coup and remained its president until his death in 2000. In 2000, Assad’s son Bashar al-Assad became president.

According to the constitution of 1973, Syria is a democratic socialist republic, although the country's government has been described as autocratic by many domestic and international critics. The president is elected by popular vote to a seven-year term. As head of the executive branch, the president wields considerable powers. He appoints the prime minister, the council of ministers over which the prime minister presides, and several vice presidents if he or she chooses, as well as nominating Supreme Constitutional Court justices. The president is also commander in chief of the armed forces, secretary of the Baath Party, and can choose to put important national issues to a popular referendum.

The Syrian legislature is called the People's Assembly, a body of 250 officials elected by popular vote every four years. The judiciary is headed by the Supreme Constitutional Court and the Court of Cassation. Lower courts are divided between courts of general jurisdiction and administrative courts.

Syria is divided into fourteen provinces. Each province has a capital and is divided into further districts and sub-districts. A governor and a council preside over each province, though power is largely vested in the central government.

The Syrian political system has been dominated by the Baath Arab Socialist Party (a part of the National Progressive Front) for several decades. There are five other legal parties, all socialist or communist in nature, and numerous illegal Kurdish parties. Pan-Arab philosophy is common.

The government of Syria has been accused by the United States of harboring terrorist groups. In January 2011, widespread anti-government protests occurred in Syria, inspired by similar pro-democracy demonstrations in Tunisia and Egypt. Human rights groups reported that the Syrian government used violence to repress the uprising, sparking the Syrian Civil War. While al-Assad's government, with Russian support, was able to retake significant portions of the country by the early 2020s, armed conflict continued between the central government and various opposition groups. By 2023, according to the United Nations, over 300,000 Syrian civilians had been killed in the conflict, in addition to tens of thousands of combatants. Additionally, the Syrian military's use of chemical weapons during the conflict drew widespread condemnation from many other countries.

As the Syrian Civil War began, unrest spilled over into Iraq and helped to fuel the rise of the terrorist group Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) beginning in 2014. The group, which sought to establish an Islamic caliphate from among the countries in the region and imposed a strict form of Sharia (Islamic law) on captured areas, committed brutal acts of terror as it succeeded in taking over significant territory in both Syria and Iraq. The Syrian city of Raqqa became a major stronghold for the terror group. The Syrian and Iraqi governments, in addition to Syrian opposition groups, Kurdish forces, and the militaries of the United States, Russia, and other countries, became involved in campaigns to retake territory from ISIS. As a result of these campaigns ISIS suffered major setbacks and lost most of its territory in the span of a few years, including Raqqa, which was recaptured by Syrian opposition forces in 2017. The leader of ISIS, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, was killed in October 2019 during a US military raid in Syria. By 2023 the group had lost most of the territory it had once controlled but still carried out periodic attacks in Iraq and Syria.

However, in December 2024, Syrian rebels overthrew the al-Assad government after taking Damascus, resulting in al-Assad seeking asylum in Russia and Ahmed al-Sharaa becoming the country's de facto leader. A constitutional declaration issued in 2025 established what was meant to be transitional governance.

Interesting Facts

• Saint Simeon the Stylite, a Christian saint, stood atop a pillar for thirty-seven years out of religious devotion, in what is now northern Syria. After his death, a church was built in his honor, the ruins of which still include a small portion of the pillar.
• The world's earliest known musical texts and one of the earliest alphabets were both unearthed on tablets at the ancient site of Ugarit, near Lattakia on the Mediterranean coast.
• The head of Saint John the Baptist was reputedly interred in the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus.
• In 2014, Syrian artists set a world record by creating the largest mural made of recycled materials in Damascus.

Bibliography

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