Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a historical text first compiled in the late ninth century. It stands as one of the few records of British history from the fall of Rome in the fifth century to the Norman Conquest of 1066. While an original copy does not exist, several reproductions from the era have survived and provide a year-by-year account of events occurring in England at the time. The Chronicle describes major battles, the accomplishments of kings, and the succession of bishops and royalty. One copy, maintained by monks into the twelfth century, contains one of the earliest examples of the evolution of the English language.

History

The Roman Empire first invaded Britain in 55 B.C.E., but other conflicts drew the empire's army away. It was not until the first century C.E. that Rome finally subjugated Britain under Emperor Claudius. Rome ruled Britain for almost 400 years until the early fifth century. By that time, the empire had begun to crumble, and its far-flung provinces were left to fend for themselves while Rome focused on defending its core. With Roman power gone, Britain was besieged by invaders. The Irish attacked from the west, the Picts from the north, and from the east came the Germanic tribes of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. By the sixth century, these invaders had become settlers and controlled the island. The three Germanic tribes ruled the southern part of the island and became known as Anglo-Saxons. Their kingdom was called England.

Historians believe annual records of events in England began to be kept about the seventh century, but none have survived to the present day. The first recorded historical work from the period was the Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum, an account of Christianity in England written in 731 by a scholar and monk named St. Bede. The original Anglo-Saxon Chronicle included information from these earlier sources and was most likely written in the late ninth century in Wessex during the reign of Alfred the Great (871–899). The exact date of its writing is unknown, and an original version no longer exists, but it is thought the Chronicle evolved out of the practice of creating Easter Tables—astronomical and historical notes to help clergy determine the dates of future religious feasts.

Copies of the original Chronicle were made and distributed to monasteries around England. The earliest surviving copy was kept at a cathedral in Winchester and was written about the year 892 C.E.—a date that was inscribed in the margins by the writer. Historians theorize that this copy is at least twice removed from the original. This version includes a genealogy of King Alfred and begins its chronology with an entry from the year 60 B.C.E. Various writers continued to record events in the manuscript until the year 1093. The last entry in this version was a list of popes and archbishops of Canterbury.

The nine surviving copies of the Chronicle were each compiled by a different author or succession of authors. Some of the manuscripts are reproductions of existing copies, and some are just fragments. Along with the lists of kings and bishops, accounts of battles are common in the Chronicle. One entry, from a copy compiled in Worcester, recounts one of the first Viking raids in northern England in 793. "Here were dreadful forewarnings come over the land of Northumbria, and woefully terrified the people: these were amazing sheets of lightning and whirlwinds, and fiery dragons were seen flying in the sky. … on the sixth day before the ides of January, the woeful inroads of heathen men destroyed god’s church in Lindisfarne island by fierce robbery and slaughter."

Despite being a treasure trove of historical information, the Chronicle was compiled by different individuals in various locations and sometimes presents conflicting versions of events that reflect a writer's bias. For example, in 1055 Ælfgar, the Earl of Anglia, was briefly exiled. Most mentions of this event refer to Ælfgar as being "outlawed," but one—maintained at a monastery in Peterborough—says Ælfgar was banished because "it was thrown at him that he was a traitor to the king," and while he admitted his treason, "the words shot out against his will." Other important events were omitted or glossed over by Chronicle writers. A large Viking invasion in 1058 is ignored in some versions; while mentioned in the Worcester Chronicle, the event is barely described: "And here came a raiding-ship army from Norway; it is tedious to tell how it all happened."

The Anglo-Saxon rule over England ended when King Edward died without leaving an heir to the throne. William, the Duke of Normandy in France, contended he was promised the English throne by Edward, as the two were distant relatives. William invaded England in October 1066 to claim the crown, and his invasion culminated in the widely known Battle of Hastings. The Peterborough Chronicle describes what happened as, "William subdued this land, and came to Westminster and archbishop Ealdred hallowed him king and men paid him tribute …"

Several of the Chronicle copies were maintained after the invasion into the twelfth century. In 1116, a fire struck the monastery at Peterborough, most likely destroying its version of the Chronicle. A single writer made another copy of the manuscript about the year 1121 and maintained it until 1131. In 1154 another writer added information from the years 1132 to 1154. This addition is notable because it was written in Middle English, an evolution of the language closer to Modern English. Previous Chronicles were written in Old English, with one also translated into Latin. The Peterborough Chronicle is one of the earliest-known examples of Middle English in existence.

Bibliography

"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle." Britannica, 27 Nov. 2025, www.britannica.com/topic/Anglo-Saxon-Chronicle. Accessed 2 Jan. 2026.

Carruthers, Bob, editor. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Illustrated and Annotated. Pen & Sword Military: South Yorkshire, England, 2013.

Faulkner, Dr. Neil. "Overview: Roman Britain, 43–410 AD." BBC.com. 29 Mar. 2011, www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/overview_roman_01.shtml. Accessed 2 Jan. 2026.

"Invasion of England, 1066." Eye Witness to History. Ibis Communications, Inc., www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/bayeux.htm. Accessed 2 Jan. 2026.

Schwartz, Nicholas Peter. “Archbishop Wulfstan’s Criticism of King Edgar in the Anglo‐Saxon Chronicle.” Early Medieval Europe, vol. 31, no. 4, Nov. 2023, pp. 650–68. EBSCOhost, doi.org/10.1111/emed.12685. Accessed 2 Jan. 2026.

Tan, Song. “The Portrayal of King Cynewulf in the Entry for 755 in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.” ANQ: A Quarterly Journal of Short Articles, Notes & Reviews, vol. 37, no. 2, Apr. 2024, pp. 176–81. EBSCOhost, doi.org/10.1080/0895769X.2022.2103787. Accessed 2 Jan. 2026.