RESEARCH STARTER

Genetically modified organisms and environmentalism

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) refer to living entities whose genetic material has been altered using biotechnology, allowing for specific changes that can enhance their traits. This technology has applications across various fields, including agriculture, medicine, and environmental remediation. In agriculture, GMOs are engineered to increase resistance to pests, diseases, and environmental stressors, ultimately aiming to improve crop yields and food security. Environmentalists view GMOs with a mix of optimism and caution, as these organisms can also be utilized for bioremediation—cleaning up pollutants through specially engineered microbes and plants.

However, the introduction of GMOs into ecosystems raises concerns about ecological stability and the unpredictability of altering natural selection processes. Potential risks include gene flow to wild species, the emergence of resistant pests, and unforeseen impacts on biodiversity. Ethical issues also arise regarding animal treatment and the potential misuse of genetic engineering for harmful purposes. Various countries have taken differing stances on GMOs, with some imposing bans or requiring labeling, reflecting a global dialogue that balances scientific advancement with environmental stewardship and ethical considerations. As the conversation about GMOs continues, stakeholders must navigate these complexities to address both ecological integrity and food security.

Full Article

DEFINITION: Living organisms whose genetic compositions have been altered through technology

SIGNIFICANCE: Organisms can be engineered for use in scientific research, human and veterinary medicine, industry, agriculture, and environmental remediation. Despite the beneficial applications, potential risks and ethical issues associated with the technology have led to controversy and restricted its use in some countries.

With the advent of recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) technology in the 1970s came the ability to modify and create genes and to transfer genetic material between unrelated species in a rapid and specific manner. The development of new traits is no longer limited to mutation or natural selection from a limited pool of genes; to alter an organism, scientists can introduce genetic traits from a wide range of species. Scientists first developed transgenic animals and plants in the early 1980s using genetic engineering in combination with techniques such as cell fusion, tissue culture, in vitro fertilization, and embryo transplantation. Clonal propagation, possible in cell and tissue culture for years, was successfully applied to mammals with the birth of Dolly the sheep in 1996.

Applications

Industry has made widespread use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Modified microbes are used in fermentation processes and to produce food ingredients. In the chemical industry, GMOs are engineered to produce reagents and novel catalysts and to convert hazardous waste into harmless or useful substances. The result has been increased efficiency of certain industrial processes and decreased waste. In 1982, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the use of human insulin derived from genetically engineered bacteria. Subsequently, the pharmaceutical industry has made significant use of GMOs to develop new drugs, vaccines, and diagnostic tests.

Since the 2010s, genome-editing technologies such as CRISPR-Cas9 have transformed genetic engineering by enabling precise modifications to an organism’s own DNA without necessarily introducing genetic material from other species. These techniques have accelerated the development of gene and cell therapies, including genetically modified immune cells used in cancer treatment and viral vectors engineered to deliver corrective genes. Genetically engineered platforms and manufacturing systems were also central to the rapid development of messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines, which rely on synthetic genetic instructions to induce immune responses.

Genetic engineering has also been used extensively in agriculture. Products of engineered organisms are used to protect plants from frost and insects, manipulate lactation and growth processes in livestock, and improve animal health. In 1986, regulators approved the release of the first genetically engineered crop plant, tobacco, in the United States. By 2006, seed producers had applied to the US Department of Agriculture for permission to field-test almost 11,600 genetically engineered varieties. By 2023, more than 90 percent of the corn, cotton, and soybeans produced in the United States were grown from genetically engineered seeds. These plants have been designed to resist disease, drought, frost, insects, and herbicides; other uses of the technology have focused on improving the nutritional value and flavor of foods. Plants have even been engineered to produce synthetic rubber, plastics, vaccines, and renewable fuels.

More recent agricultural innovations increasingly rely on gene editing rather than traditional transgenesis. Gene-edited crops may involve small deletions or substitutions in native genes and, in some regulatory systems, are treated differently from transgenic GMOs. These approaches have been used to enhance drought tolerance, disease resistance, and shelf life while reducing regulatory burdens associated with the introduction of foreign DNA.

One of the first examples of an organism genetically engineered to address environmental problems was a bacterium created to degrade oil. This oil-eating bacterium was at the center of an important US Supreme Court case (Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 1980) in which it was ruled that the bacterium was a living invention and thus patentable. Such bacteria have proven effective in cleaning up oil spills both in the oceans and on land.

The use of living organisms to remove toxic chemicals from the environment is known as bioremediation. Genetically engineered microorganisms (GEMs) are essential to this process because many pollutants are human-made chemicals that cannot normally be degraded by living organisms. GEMs contain new or modified enzymes that enable them to digest the pollutants and convert them to nontoxic compounds such as carbon dioxide and water. They are also advantageous in that they can be used for in-situ treatments, including on-site soil decontamination, detoxification of wetlands and streams, and groundwater purification, eliminating some of the technical problems associated with other remediation methods. GEMs are also used to recover minerals from mining and industrial wastes.

Genetically modified plants are also used to remove environmental pollutants. Researchers have genetically altered poplar trees to absorb trichloroethylene, a toxic solvent and common groundwater contaminant, from a liquid solution in quantities roughly thirty times greater and at rates one hundred times faster than naturally occurring poplars. The engineered trees break the solvent down into nontoxic components. In the future, genetically enhanced phytoremediation—the use of trees, grasses, and other plants to remove contaminants—may be employed to clean up sites contaminated by hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and radioactivity.

Concerns and Regulation

The modification of natural selection and the disruption of ecosystems are the major concerns associated with the introduction of genetically engineered organisms into the environment. In addition, not all consequences of this technology are predictable because of a lack of data on the stability of artificial genetic changes, the tendency of DNA manipulation to induce mutations in organisms, and the natural complexity of organisms. Unforeseen environmental problems posed by GMOs are intractable because once introduced into the environment, they may be impossible to remove and isolate. Critics of the technology make reference to “genetic wastes” that can propagate, mutate, and migrate.

The possibility of gene flow or escape—the transfer of genes from the modified organisms to related species in the wild—is of concern. Antibiotic resistance genes used as markers in the development of transgenic organisms might be transferred to bacteria, leading to new treatment-resistant strains. (While scientists regard this as unlikely, the remote possibility has led to the use of alternative types of marker genes, such as one that causes the plant to fluoresce under ultraviolet light.) Modified viruses used in many recombinant DNA techniques might escape to create new disease-causing agents. Transgenic organisms designed to be more vigorous, or any new species created by the gene transfer, may have selective advantages over native species, leading to the disruption of natural balance in ecosystems and possibly exacerbating biodiversity restriction. However, even without human interference with genetic material, the exchange of genes can occur in nature.

Underlying some criticisms of the genetic engineering of organisms are ethical concerns related to the fair treatment of animals and the possibility that the technology could be used to modify humans selectively. Furthermore, critics note the potential for the misuse of the technology in human experimentation, the development of biological weapons, and acts of terrorism.

In the United States, three federal agencies evaluate new genetically engineered crops. Under the Plant Protection Act of 2000, the Department of Agriculture is responsible for agricultural and environmental safety associated with genetically modified crops. The FDA has oversight of safety aspects where human food and animal feed are involved. In 2022, the United States fully implemented the National Bioengineered Food Disclosure Standard, which requires disclosure of bioengineered food ingredients through on-package text, symbols, or digital links. The Environmental Protection Agency evaluates food safety and environmental quality where genetically modified plants have insect resistance or other pesticidal properties. Within the European Union (EU), the European Food Safety Agency provides scientific advice regarding food and animal feed safety. Between 1999 and 2003, the EU imposed a moratorium on genetically modified imports. By 2023, sixty-five countries, including the United States, required foods produced from GMO ingredients to be labeled. Regulatory approaches to genetically modified organisms vary widely by country. While some nations restrict or prohibit the cultivation of genetically engineered crops, many continue to allow the import and consumption of GMO-derived foods. Within the European Union, member states may opt out of cultivating approved genetically modified crops while remaining subject to EU-wide authorization rules for food and feed. Labeling requirements for foods produced from genetically modified ingredients have expanded globally, though thresholds, exemptions, and enforcement mechanisms differ substantially among jurisdictions.

In 2000, more than 130 countries adopted the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, which entered into force in 2003. The objective of this supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was to contribute to the safe transfer, handling, and use of living modified organisms (LMOs) such as genetically engineered plants, animals, and microbes that cross international borders. The protocol was an effort to protect biodiversity and human health on a global scale without causing unnecessary disruption to the world food trade. Under the protocol, LMOs intended for introduction into the environment may not be imported into a country without that country’s informed consent. As of 2023, the United States was not a party to the CBD and thus could not become a party to the Cartagena Protocol. However, the United States did participate in negotiations for this international treaty.


Bibliography

Bodiguel, Luc, and Michael Cardwell, editors. The Regulation of Genetically Modified Organisms: Comparative Approaches. Oxford UP, 2010.

Ilasco, Ion. “Reports on GMOs and Statistics.” Developmentaid, 2 June 2022, www.developmentaid.org/news-stream/post/144105/reports-on-gmos-and-statistics. Accessed 30 Jan. 2026.

Glick, Bernard J., et al. Molecular Biotechnology: Principles and Applications of Recombinant DNA. 4th ed., ASM Press, 2009.

International Union for Conservation of Nature. Genetically Modified Organisms and Biosafety: A Background Paper for Decision-Makers and Others to Assist in Consideration of GMO Issues. IUCN, 2004.

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Genetically Engineered Crops: Experiences and Prospects. National Academies Press, 2016, doi:10.17226/23395. Accessed 30 Jan. 2026.

Nelson, Gerald C., editor. Genetically Modified Organisms in Agriculture: Economics and Politics. Academic Press, 2001.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Innovation, Productivity and Sustainability in Food and Agriculture: Main Findings from Country Reviews. OECD Publishing, 2022, doi:10.1787/66d32a1f-en. Accessed 30 Jan. 2026.

Pardey, Philip G., editor. The Future of Food: Biotechnology Markets and Policies in an International Setting. International Food Policy Research Institute, 2002.

“Recent Trends in GE Adoption.” USDA ERS, 4 Oct. 2023, www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/adoption-of-genetically-engineered-crops-in-the-u-s/recent-trends-in-ge-adoption/. Accessed 30 Jan. 2026.

Rifkin, Jeremy. The Biotech Century: Harnessing the Gene and Remaking the World. Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam, 1998.

Stewart, C. Neal. Genetically Modified Planet: Environmental Impacts of Genetically Engineered Plants. Oxford UP, 2004.

Full Article

DEFINITION: Living organisms whose genetic compositions have been altered through technology

SIGNIFICANCE: Organisms can be engineered for use in scientific research, human and veterinary medicine, industry, agriculture, and environmental remediation. Despite the beneficial applications, potential risks and ethical issues associated with the technology have led to controversy and restricted its use in some countries.

With the advent of recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) technology in the 1970s came the ability to modify and create genes and to transfer genetic material between unrelated species in a rapid and specific manner. The development of new traits is no longer limited to mutation or natural selection from a limited pool of genes; to alter an organism, scientists can introduce genetic traits from a wide range of species. Scientists first developed transgenic animals and plants in the early 1980s using genetic engineering in combination with techniques such as cell fusion, tissue culture, in vitro fertilization, and embryo transplantation. Clonal propagation, possible in cell and tissue culture for years, was successfully applied to mammals with the birth of Dolly the sheep in 1996.

Applications

Industry has made widespread use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Modified microbes are used in fermentation processes and to produce food ingredients. In the chemical industry, GMOs are engineered to produce reagents and novel catalysts and to convert hazardous waste into harmless or useful substances. The result has been increased efficiency of certain industrial processes and decreased waste. In 1982, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the use of human insulin derived from genetically engineered bacteria. Subsequently, the pharmaceutical industry has made significant use of GMOs to develop new drugs, vaccines, and diagnostic tests.

Since the 2010s, genome-editing technologies such as CRISPR-Cas9 have transformed genetic engineering by enabling precise modifications to an organism’s own DNA without necessarily introducing genetic material from other species. These techniques have accelerated the development of gene and cell therapies, including genetically modified immune cells used in cancer treatment and viral vectors engineered to deliver corrective genes. Genetically engineered platforms and manufacturing systems were also central to the rapid development of messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines, which rely on synthetic genetic instructions to induce immune responses.

Genetic engineering has also been used extensively in agriculture. Products of engineered organisms are used to protect plants from frost and insects, manipulate lactation and growth processes in livestock, and improve animal health. In 1986, regulators approved the release of the first genetically engineered crop plant, tobacco, in the United States. By 2006, seed producers had applied to the US Department of Agriculture for permission to field-test almost 11,600 genetically engineered varieties. By 2023, more than 90 percent of the corn, cotton, and soybeans produced in the United States were grown from genetically engineered seeds. These plants have been designed to resist disease, drought, frost, insects, and herbicides; other uses of the technology have focused on improving the nutritional value and flavor of foods. Plants have even been engineered to produce synthetic rubber, plastics, vaccines, and renewable fuels.

More recent agricultural innovations increasingly rely on gene editing rather than traditional transgenesis. Gene-edited crops may involve small deletions or substitutions in native genes and, in some regulatory systems, are treated differently from transgenic GMOs. These approaches have been used to enhance drought tolerance, disease resistance, and shelf life while reducing regulatory burdens associated with the introduction of foreign DNA.

One of the first examples of an organism genetically engineered to address environmental problems was a bacterium created to degrade oil. This oil-eating bacterium was at the center of an important US Supreme Court case (Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 1980) in which it was ruled that the bacterium was a living invention and thus patentable. Such bacteria have proven effective in cleaning up oil spills both in the oceans and on land.

The use of living organisms to remove toxic chemicals from the environment is known as bioremediation. Genetically engineered microorganisms (GEMs) are essential to this process because many pollutants are human-made chemicals that cannot normally be degraded by living organisms. GEMs contain new or modified enzymes that enable them to digest the pollutants and convert them to nontoxic compounds such as carbon dioxide and water. They are also advantageous in that they can be used for in-situ treatments, including on-site soil decontamination, detoxification of wetlands and streams, and groundwater purification, eliminating some of the technical problems associated with other remediation methods. GEMs are also used to recover minerals from mining and industrial wastes.

Genetically modified plants are also used to remove environmental pollutants. Researchers have genetically altered poplar trees to absorb trichloroethylene, a toxic solvent and common groundwater contaminant, from a liquid solution in quantities roughly thirty times greater and at rates one hundred times faster than naturally occurring poplars. The engineered trees break the solvent down into nontoxic components. In the future, genetically enhanced phytoremediation—the use of trees, grasses, and other plants to remove contaminants—may be employed to clean up sites contaminated by hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and radioactivity.

Concerns and Regulation

The modification of natural selection and the disruption of ecosystems are the major concerns associated with the introduction of genetically engineered organisms into the environment. In addition, not all consequences of this technology are predictable because of a lack of data on the stability of artificial genetic changes, the tendency of DNA manipulation to induce mutations in organisms, and the natural complexity of organisms. Unforeseen environmental problems posed by GMOs are intractable because once introduced into the environment, they may be impossible to remove and isolate. Critics of the technology make reference to “genetic wastes” that can propagate, mutate, and migrate.

The possibility of gene flow or escape—the transfer of genes from the modified organisms to related species in the wild—is of concern. Antibiotic resistance genes used as markers in the development of transgenic organisms might be transferred to bacteria, leading to new treatment-resistant strains. (While scientists regard this as unlikely, the remote possibility has led to the use of alternative types of marker genes, such as one that causes the plant to fluoresce under ultraviolet light.) Modified viruses used in many recombinant DNA techniques might escape to create new disease-causing agents. Transgenic organisms designed to be more vigorous, or any new species created by the gene transfer, may have selective advantages over native species, leading to the disruption of natural balance in ecosystems and possibly exacerbating biodiversity restriction. However, even without human interference with genetic material, the exchange of genes can occur in nature.

Underlying some criticisms of the genetic engineering of organisms are ethical concerns related to the fair treatment of animals and the possibility that the technology could be used to modify humans selectively. Furthermore, critics note the potential for the misuse of the technology in human experimentation, the development of biological weapons, and acts of terrorism.

In the United States, three federal agencies evaluate new genetically engineered crops. Under the Plant Protection Act of 2000, the Department of Agriculture is responsible for agricultural and environmental safety associated with genetically modified crops. The FDA has oversight of safety aspects where human food and animal feed are involved. In 2022, the United States fully implemented the National Bioengineered Food Disclosure Standard, which requires disclosure of bioengineered food ingredients through on-package text, symbols, or digital links. The Environmental Protection Agency evaluates food safety and environmental quality where genetically modified plants have insect resistance or other pesticidal properties. Within the European Union (EU), the European Food Safety Agency provides scientific advice regarding food and animal feed safety. Between 1999 and 2003, the EU imposed a moratorium on genetically modified imports. By 2023, sixty-five countries, including the United States, required foods produced from GMO ingredients to be labeled. Regulatory approaches to genetically modified organisms vary widely by country. While some nations restrict or prohibit the cultivation of genetically engineered crops, many continue to allow the import and consumption of GMO-derived foods. Within the European Union, member states may opt out of cultivating approved genetically modified crops while remaining subject to EU-wide authorization rules for food and feed. Labeling requirements for foods produced from genetically modified ingredients have expanded globally, though thresholds, exemptions, and enforcement mechanisms differ substantially among jurisdictions.

In 2000, more than 130 countries adopted the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, which entered into force in 2003. The objective of this supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was to contribute to the safe transfer, handling, and use of living modified organisms (LMOs) such as genetically engineered plants, animals, and microbes that cross international borders. The protocol was an effort to protect biodiversity and human health on a global scale without causing unnecessary disruption to the world food trade. Under the protocol, LMOs intended for introduction into the environment may not be imported into a country without that country’s informed consent. As of 2023, the United States was not a party to the CBD and thus could not become a party to the Cartagena Protocol. However, the United States did participate in negotiations for this international treaty.


Bibliography

Bodiguel, Luc, and Michael Cardwell, editors. The Regulation of Genetically Modified Organisms: Comparative Approaches. Oxford UP, 2010.

Ilasco, Ion. “Reports on GMOs and Statistics.” Developmentaid, 2 June 2022, www.developmentaid.org/news-stream/post/144105/reports-on-gmos-and-statistics. Accessed 30 Jan. 2026.

Glick, Bernard J., et al. Molecular Biotechnology: Principles and Applications of Recombinant DNA. 4th ed., ASM Press, 2009.

International Union for Conservation of Nature. Genetically Modified Organisms and Biosafety: A Background Paper for Decision-Makers and Others to Assist in Consideration of GMO Issues. IUCN, 2004.

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Genetically Engineered Crops: Experiences and Prospects. National Academies Press, 2016, doi:10.17226/23395. Accessed 30 Jan. 2026.

Nelson, Gerald C., editor. Genetically Modified Organisms in Agriculture: Economics and Politics. Academic Press, 2001.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Innovation, Productivity and Sustainability in Food and Agriculture: Main Findings from Country Reviews. OECD Publishing, 2022, doi:10.1787/66d32a1f-en. Accessed 30 Jan. 2026.

Pardey, Philip G., editor. The Future of Food: Biotechnology Markets and Policies in an International Setting. International Food Policy Research Institute, 2002.

“Recent Trends in GE Adoption.” USDA ERS, 4 Oct. 2023, www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/adoption-of-genetically-engineered-crops-in-the-u-s/recent-trends-in-ge-adoption/. Accessed 30 Jan. 2026.

Rifkin, Jeremy. The Biotech Century: Harnessing the Gene and Remaking the World. Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam, 1998.

Stewart, C. Neal. Genetically Modified Planet: Environmental Impacts of Genetically Engineered Plants. Oxford UP, 2004.

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