Agricultural science

Summary

Agriculture, the practice of producing foods, fibers, and other useful products from domesticated plants and animals, has developed to its present state through the application of scientific discoveries made throughout history. Agricultural science (the study of agriculture) gathers and analyzes information from basic research conducted at federal, state, and private facilities and applies it to agricultural settings. Agriculture encompasses a broad spectrum of applications; therefore, agricultural science is extremely diverse, covering almost every aspect of plant and animal science and the humans involved in the process.

Definition and Basic Principles

Agricultural science is the study of agriculture (also called farming), the practice of producing foods, fibers, and other useful products from domesticated plants and animals. Food production is one of the oldest professions in the history of humankind, and even in the twenty-first century, agriculture remains the most common occupation worldwide. The term “agriculture” covers a broad spectrum of practices, beginning with sustenance agriculture, in which a farmer produces various crops sufficient to feed the farmer and their family as well as a small excess, which can be sold for cash or bartered for other goods or services. At the other end of the scale, commercialized industrial agriculture involves many acres of land and large numbers of livestock, a considerable input of resources such as fuel, pesticides, and fertilizers, and a high level of mechanization to maximize profit from the enterprise.

Agricultural science uses information gained from basic research and applies it to agricultural settings to increase the yield and quality of agricultural products. The overall goal is to produce sufficient food and fibers to feed and clothe the population and increase the profit margin for those involved in the production process. Agricultural science covers almost every aspect of plant and animal science, and applying scientifically sound agricultural principles can enhance production regardless of the level of agriculture being practiced.

Background and History

The beginnings of agriculture predate recorded history. No one knows when the first crop was cultivated. Yet beginning around 8500 Before the Common Era (BCE), humans began the gradual transition from a hunter-gatherer to an agricultural society. By 4000 BCE, agriculture had been firmly established in Asia, India, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Mexico, Central America, and South America. The transition to agriculture occurred because humans discovered that seeds from certain wild grasses could be collected and planted on land that could be controlled and that the resulting crop could be harvested for food. This process represents the earliest stage of agricultural science. Through continued observation and selection of preferred plant and animal characteristics, agriculture continued to develop. By the start of the Bronze Age (around 3000 BCE in the Middle East), humankind had become fully dependent on domestic crops.

Agriculture developed slowly, and even in the nineteenth century, most agricultural enterprises practiced subsistence agriculture. The Industrial Revolution changed the agriculture industry with the invention and production of agricultural machinery such as the cotton gin (by Eli Whitney in 1793), the mechanical reaper (by Cyrus Hall McCormick in 1833), and the steel plow (by John Deere in 1837). Mechanization led to the development of commercial agriculture and an increase in interest in all areas of agricultural science.

In the twentieth century, the combined action of many agricultural scientists in the Green Revolution led to the development of high-yielding varieties of numerous crops. As a result of numerous other developments in agricultural science, a modern agricultural unit requires relatively few employees, is highly mechanized, devotes large amounts of land to the production of only one crop, and is highly reliant on agricultural chemicals.

How It Works

Research. Agricultural science can be divided into two broad categories: research and extension. Agricultural scientists who engage in research are involved in designing experiments, gathering and analyzing data, drawing conclusions, and publishing their results. In the United States, formal training in agricultural science can be traced back to 1862, with the establishment of the Department of Agriculture and the passage of the Morrill Act, which provided the means for establishing land-grant colleges in each state. One of the major roles of the land-grant colleges was to provide training in agriculture. The Hatch Act of 1887 provided the means to fund the establishment of agricultural research stations in each state. In most states, the agricultural research station is connected with a land-grant college or university, and the major function of the research station is to conduct agricultural research.

The research being conducted at land-grant colleges and universities and state and federal agricultural research stations is as varied as agriculture itself. Some of the disciplines involved in the study of agriculture include agronomy and horticulture, weed science, forestry, animal and poultry science, dairy and food science, agricultural engineering, soil chemistry and physics, rural sociology, agricultural economics, and plant and animal physiology, pathology, and genetics.

Extension. Basic research usually is conducted at land-grant institutions, and applied research typically takes place at agricultural research stations. Basic research is designed to study some fundamental principle and generally leads to a better understanding of how nature works. Applied research usually involves taking information discovered in basic research and using it in real-world situations. In agricultural science, this means applying the knowledge in an agricultural setting. When applied research shows that a particular technique or development is an improvement over the existing practice (for example, resulting in higher yield or quality), the information is passed on to those who can use it. This is most often done through pamphlets and other materials published by the state’s Cooperative Extension Service. The Cooperative Extension Service was established by the Smith-Lever Act of 1914. In most states, the Cooperative Extension Service is a component of the agricultural research station, and its primary function is to transfer technology from those who discover it (agricultural scientists) to those who produce agricultural commodities. In many areas, agricultural extension agents will visit individually with the producers to ensure the technology is transferred.

Applications and Products

Food and Fiber Production. Humans have been applying some aspects of agricultural science for more than ten thousand years. Even though they were not aware of it, people were acting in accordance with basic scientific principles every time they selected seeds for planting and animals for breeding in hopes of reproducing a desired trait. In the modern world, there is no food, fiber, or other agricultural product that has not been affected by the application of agricultural science. Many of these applications resulted in higher yields. For example, in the later part of the nineteenth century, soil scientists learned that soil erosion could be dramatically reduced by planting windbreaks and plowing perpendicular to the slope rather than in the direction of the slope. This helped conserve topsoil and increased yields. Another practice that has increased yields has been the use of fertilizers. In the nineteenth century, plant scientists discovered which nutrients plants require, and agriculturalists used this knowledge to return fertility to depleted soil and increase yields.

The use of agricultural machinery led to tremendous increases in crop yields. To use their machinery more efficiently, agriculturalists turned to monoculture. Although this practice raised yields, it also made crops more susceptible to damage by pests. Scientists have developed many different agricultural chemicals to combat these pests and maintain high yields.

Animal husbandry has also benefited from the efforts of agricultural scientists. In the poultry industry, scientists discovered that by controlling the temperature and lighting in the poultry house, the number of consecutive days hens lay eggs could be increased from around fifty to more than three hundred. This has resulted in tremendous yields in egg production.

Discoveries in genetics have also contributed significantly to increases in agricultural yields. Plant breeders have been able to use knowledge of genetics to produce numerous varieties of high-yielding crops, and animal breeders have produced breeds that grow much larger than the parental stock. In combination with genetics, biotechnology is being used to enhance the quality of many agricultural products. For example, genetic engineering has produced a variety of tomatoes that maintain their flavor during storage, thereby increasing their shelf life. It has also increased corn yields by 10 percent and developed seeds for other crops resistant to climate change.

Agricultural Products. The products of agricultural science are the foods, fibers, and other commodities produced by agricultural endeavors around the world that affect the daily lives of everyone. Agricultural products are generally divided into those that come from animals and those that are derived from plants. Each of these products exists in its present state due to the application of knowledge gained from agricultural science.

The major animal-derived products can be divided into edible and nonedible red meat products, milk and milk products, poultry and egg products, and wool and mohair. Edible red meat products primarily come from cattle, swine, sheep, goats, and animals such as horses and Asian or African buffalo. The major nonedible red meat products include rendered fat, used to make soap and formula animal feeds; bone meal, used in fertilizer and animal feeds; manures used as fertilizers; and hides and skins, which are tanned and used to make leather products. Milk and milk products (also known as dairy products) are produced primarily by dairy cattle and include whole milk, evaporated and condensed milk, cultured milk products, cream products, butter, cheese, and ice cream. Poultry (chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, pigeons, and guinea hens) and egg products are nutritious, relatively inexpensive, and used by humans worldwide. The hair covering the skin of some farm animals (wool and mohair) is also considered an agricultural product.

Plant-derived agricultural products are very diverse. Timber products include materials derived from trees in renewable forests. Grain crops such as corn, rice, and wheat are grasses that produce edible seeds. Cotton, flax, and hemp are the principal fiber plants grown in the United States, although less important crops such as ramie, jute, and sisal are also grown. Fruit crops refer to the fruit from a variety of perennial plants that are harvested for their refreshing flavors and nourishment. Nut crops such as pecan, walnut, and almond refer to those woody plants that produce seeds with firm shells and an inner kernel. Vegetable crops are extremely diverse and range from starchy calorie sources (such as potatoes) to foods that supply mainly vitamins and minerals (like lettuce). The world’s three most popular nonalcoholic beverages are derived from coffee, tea, and cocoa plants. Spice crops are plants grown for their strong aroma or flavor, and drug crops are plants that have medicinal properties. Ornamental crops are grown for aesthetic purposes and are divided into florist crops (flower and foliage plants) and landscape crops (nursery plants). Forage crops include clover, alfalfa, and other small grain grasses grown to feed livestock and a variety of straw crops for haymaking. Specialty crops, grown for their high cash value, include sugarcane, tobacco, artichokes, and rubber.

Impact on Industry

Throughout the world, agricultural scientists can be found working for governments, colleges and universities, international organizations, and industry.

Government Regulation and Research. Most developed countries have an agency responsible for overseeing the nation’s food and fiber production. Often this agency is a federally funded agricultural agency similar to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) that is responsible for conducting agricultural research and ensuring that the latest developments are made available to the agricultural industry. Agencies such as the USDA generally have research facilities located in various parts of the country. These facilities may stand alone or be located on a university campus.

In most developed countries, each state or province will have a state agency that oversees regional agricultural research stations and extension specialists. The type of agriculture practiced in a given area is influenced by a number of factors, including water availability, soil, and climate; therefore, these facilities are usually in different geographical areas, and the agricultural scientists who are employed at these facilities generally focus their research on the agricultural commodities produced in that area. In the United States, for example, a research station in the dairy region of Wisconsin may conduct research related to the dairy industry; in the corn belt of Iowa, the focus may be on corn research; and cotton research may receive the major research emphasis in the high plains of Texas.

Academic Research. Throughout the world, a significant amount of agricultural research takes place at colleges and universities. Much of this research is conducted in institutions such as the land-grant universities, which were partially founded on the premise that training in agricultural science would be provided; however, research projects related to agriculture can also be found at other educational institutions. Scientists at these institutions often conduct basic research, but discoveries made at this level often lead to practical developments in agricultural science. Regardless of the institution, research is expensive and in most cases is supported by grant funds primarily provided by government agencies and to a lesser extent by private industry.

International Organizations. In underdeveloped countries, agricultural development through the application of scientific agricultural practices is often accomplished through the actions of international organizations. One such organization, the International Fund for Agricultural Development, was established in 1977 as a specialized agency of the United Nations. Its primary function is to provide financial support for agricultural development projects, particularly those involving food production in developing countries. Although the agency may fund only agricultural development, other groups such as the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research may actually conduct agricultural research. This group’s mission is to use scientific research and research-related activities in the fields of agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and the environment to create sustainable food sources and reduce poverty in developing countries. Through the activities of organizations such as these, agricultural science is being applied to help reduce poverty and hunger and improve human health and nutrition throughout the world.

Industry. Agricultural science plays a major role in the financial health of many businesses, ranging from small feed, seed, and fertilizer retail outlets to major corporations. At the same time, industry has contributed to the advancement of agricultural science. Sometimes this contribution is in the form of grants to finance agricultural research by federal or state scientists or university faculty, in the hope that the research will be useful in developing an agricultural product. However, many companies employ agricultural scientists to conduct research specifically for the company.

Agricultural chemicals and machinery are two of the areas in which industry has played a major role. Because of the low availability and high cost of labor, mechanization is a must; therefore, agricultural engineers are constantly developing new cost- and time-saving machinery. Two prominent companies producing agricultural equipment are Case IH and Deere & Company.

Modern agricultural is highly reliant on agricultural chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides, and large-scale agriculture would be impossible without the use of these chemicals; therefore, agricultural chemical companies are constantly conducting research on new, environmentally safe, and effective chemicals. Leaders in the production of agricultural chemicals include Monsanto and Bayer CropScience.

Careers and Coursework

Careers in agricultural science are as varied as the field of agriculture itself. Many agricultural scientists work in basic or applied research and development for federal or state governmental agencies, colleges and universities, or private industry. Some people trained in agricultural science advance to administrative positions, managing research and development programs or marketing or production operations in companies that produce food products or agricultural chemicals, supplies, and machinery. Other agricultural scientists work as consultants to agricultural enterprises. The actual nature of the work being performed by agricultural scientists can be broadly divided into food science and technology, plant science, soil science, and animal science. Over 38,000 people were employed in agricultural and food science in the United States in 2024, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) in 2025. These numbers did not include those college and university faculty members who were trained in one of the areas of agricultural science.

The coursework required for majors in agricultural science varies considerably. The specific curriculum depends on the area of agricultural science the student is interested in, but a strong math and science background is generally needed. Most entry-level positions in the farming or food-processing industry require a bachelor’s degree; however, to acquire a research position in most universities, state or federal agencies, or private industries, a master’s or doctoral degree in agricultural science, in an engineering specialty, or in a related science such as biology, chemistry, or physics is usually mandatory.

Social Context and Future Prospects

Agriculture has been and will continue to be extremely important to the development of human culture. Modern civilization would not have developed without agriculture, and agriculture has been successful primarily because of myriad and continuing discoveries made in various disciplines associated with agricultural science. The continued advancement of civilization depends on the ability to produce sufficient food and fiber to feed and clothe the world’s populations; therefore, agricultural science will continue to be of paramount importance in the future as scientists try to determine the best methods to produce enough food to feed an ever-growing number of people and research other issues impacting the field, such as climate change and changes to weather patterns, increasing demand for water resources, and pest management.

Biotechnology is likely to have a tremendous impact on agricultural science. Agricultural scientists have begun to use biotechnology in an attempt to improve a wide variety of characteristics in various plants and animals. Many genetically modified plants are already commercially available. In 2024, over 92 percent of all corn, soybeans, and cotton planted in the United States were genetically modified. These modifications may help improve a crop's resistance to certain pests, increase yields, and improve nutritional quality. As genetically modified foods are created, scientists must deal with the social issues, legal issues (such as patents), and scientific questions they create.

Although agricultural science has increased the yields of agricultural products, some of these gains have come at a cost to the environment. Agricultural scientists are studying ways to practice sustainable agriculture and to raise crop yields and quality without causing damage to the environment. Environmental concerns have also sparked interest in producing biofuels, fuels manufactured from agricultural derivatives. This raises the question of how much agricultural land should be devoted to food production and how much to growing crops as energy sources.

In the twenty-first century, technology continued to dominate and innovate agricultural sciences. Drones and satellites helped to monitor crops and soil from an aerial view. Artificial intelligence helped to guide farmers in creating models for the best outcomes based on historical and predictive data. Sustainable farming and livestock production practices continued to be explored to thwart the effects of climate change. New pest prevention methods and farming methods, like vertical agriculture and hydroponics, promised higher yields and maximum profits. Agricultural science continued to evolve, but its necessity to support the world’s population remained critical.

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