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Lima, Peru

Lima, the capital and largest city of Peru, is situated along the southern bank of the Rímac River, approximately 13 kilometers inland from the Pacific Ocean. Known for its sprawling urban landscape, the city has earned the nickname "El Pulpo" ("The Octopus") due to its extensive cultural and economic influence. Lima's climate is characterized by low rainfall and persistent fog, which can contribute to air quality issues. Home to over 11 million residents, the city showcases a diverse demographic, with a significant portion of the population identifying as Mestizo, reflecting a blend of European and indigenous ancestry.

Economically, Lima serves as Peru's financial and industrial hub, contributing substantially to the country's GDP. Despite its economic importance, the city grapples with challenges such as unemployment and inadequate public transportation, particularly affecting lower-income residents. Lima's rich history is evident in its many landmarks, including well-preserved colonial churches and museums that highlight its indigenous and colonial past. With a complex narrative that includes periods of hardship and resilience, Lima continues to evolve while being deeply impacted by socio-economic disparities and urban development challenges.

Full Article

Lima is the capital of Peru and the country's largest city. Its name comes from the Quechua word for "talker," although the city is often known by its nickname, El Pulpo ("The Octopus"), so called because of its sprawling landscape and cultural influence. One of the city's less positive nicknames is "Lima la Horrible," used by people upset with Lima's modernization efforts. They claim that the process of modernization has favored the wealthiest citizens, leaving poorer Limeños in conditions that are as bad as or worse than they were prior to the city's expansion.

Landscape

Lima covers an area of approximately 2,672 square kilometers (1,032 square miles), making it one of the largest metropolitan areas in South America. The city is located west of the Andes, on the southern bank of the Rímac River, 13 kilometers (8 miles) inland from the Pacific Ocean. It is surrounded by the Peruvian coastal desert, which has almost no native plant or animal life. Lima’s coastal landscape has been shaped primarily by tectonic and marine forces. The region remains geologically active, with frequent earthquakes and ongoing cliff erosion posing risks to infrastructure.

Lima has been affected by climate change, which has led to rising temperatures and sea levels. As a coastal city within a desert ecosystem, it is particularly vulnerable to water scarcity. In response, the Government of Peru, through the Ministry of the Environment (Minam), has approved the National Plan for Adaptation to Climate Change by 2050, an initiative aimed at reducing the country’s vulnerability to climate-related impacts. Traditionally, Lima receives an average annual rainfall of just 0.7 centimeters (0.3 inches), making it one of the driest major cities in the world. The city is typically overcast, with a persistent low cloud cover called garúa that blankets the area for much of the year. Although January and February are the sunniest months, Lima generally experiences limited sunshine and sparse greenery. When sunlight does break through the fog, the city can experience intense heat and humidity. The garúa also traps air pollutants, contributing to poor air quality. The Humboldt Current helps moderate temperatures most of the year in this otherwise tropical zone. Average monthly temperatures range from 16 to 19 degrees Celsius (60 to 66 degrees Fahrenheit) during winter (May to November) and can reach up to 27 degrees Celsius (80 degrees Fahrenheit) in the summer months (December to April).

People

According to Peru's 2025 Census, Lima had a population of 10.13 million. That year, the total population of Peru was 334,157,732. In Peru, class distinctions outweigh ethnic identity as the primary basis of social categorization, so the Census does not include ethnic demographic data. A 2017 estimate reported that Peru’s population was composed of 60.2 percent Mestizo (mixed Indigenous and White), 25.8 percent Indigenous, 5.9 percent White, 3.6 percent of African descent, 1.2 percent other (including Chinese and Japanese descent), and 3.3 percent unspecified. 

Many wealthy Limeños maintain winter homes on the outskirts of the city, where the climate is more hospitable and free of the garúa. Access to reliable utilities, such as indoor plumbing and adequate food supply, is largely limited to the city’s wealthier residents.

In contrast, large portions of the population reside in informal settlements or shantytowns. Inner-city areas—formerly aristocratic neighborhoods known as tugurios, corralones, and callejones—have been converted into overcrowded tenements that now house many of the city's poorer residents, especially recent migrants. Various urban renewal initiatives have aimed to improve conditions in areas like El Cercado, though progress remains uneven.

By 2017, approximately two-thirds of greater Lima’s population was Roman Catholic, around 750,000 were evangelical Protestants, and fewer than half a million adhered to other religions or were unaffiliated.

Economy

Lima is both a major port and the country's primary business center. It serves as Peru’s financial and industrial hub and contributes significantly to national GDP, which the World Bank reported to be $289.22 billion USD in 2024. The city's industrial corridor, historically centered around Callao-Lima-Vitarte, encompasses a range of sectors, including food processing, construction, vehicle maintenance, and retail. Key products include processed fish, cement, meat, furniture, and metal goods.

The employment landscape in Lima experienced severe setbacks in the 1990s, when the privatization of state-owned enterprises coincided with a national recession. Between 1997 and 1999, economic decline pushed nearly half the population below the poverty line. While Lima attracts the majority of Peru’s manufacturing businesses due to its large labor pool, not all residents seeking employment are absorbed by the formal sector. Between December 2025 and February 2026, Lima’s unemployment rate stood at 6.4 percent, according to the National Institute of Statistics and Informatics (INEI).

Lima’s urban infrastructure, particularly transportation, has long faced challenges. The city’s roadways are often congested, and public transit has historically relied on aging systems, including South America’s oldest rail line. In response to growing demand, deregulation in the 1990s led to the emergence of a large informal taxi sector. Between 2003 and 2011, the World Bank supported the development of a rapid-bus transit system aimed at improving mobility for residents on the city’s periphery. In parallel, construction of Line 1 of the Lima Metro began in 2010 and became operational in 2012. A second line, granted to the Consorcio Nuevo Metro de Lima in 2014, was completed by 2023, with six additional light-rail lines planned. However, municipal leadership has faced criticism for prioritizing automobile infrastructure over pedestrian accessibility, raising concerns about worsening congestion and sustainability.

Landmarks

Many ancient structures are still standing in Lima. The Templo de Pachacamac, in the Lurín district, was built by the Wari (Huari) people to honor the Hacedor del Mundo (Creator of the World). Many sections of the Lima City Walls, built by the Spanish to protect the city from pirates, are still standing and are a major tourist attraction in Lima.

Due to the Spanish conquistadores' mission to convert the native people to Catholicism, Lima is home to many churches. In fact, there is a church on almost every street in the city. Lima's rich metal mines were a boon to the city's early economic development and also resulted in ornately decorated churches, which often had silver or gold altars and ornaments.

The Pueblo Libre district is home to most of Lima's museums, including the Museo Nacional de Antropología, Arqueología e Historia, and the Museo de Oro del Perú, both of which have numerous artifacts from Lima's ancient civilizations on display. In 1988, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) declared Lima's Historic Center a World Heritage Site. The Plaza Mayor, home to the Lima Cathedral and the Presidential Palace, is located in this historic district. The Convento de San Francisco, built in the seventeenth century, is known both for its neoclassical architecture and the extensive catacombs beneath it.

History

The earliest known inhabitants of the area where Lima now stands were hunters and harpoon fishers; remains of these early inhabitants suggest that they lived in Lima more than one thousand years ago. Several different tribes inhabited the area for centuries, leaving their mark on modern-day Lima in the form of adobe buildings and temples. A tribe called the Wari (or Huari) dominated the region for years before eventually declining and being supplanted by the Chancay.

In the fifteenth century, the Inca population rose to prominence. The Incas would dominate the city until the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores and would ultimately help shape the character of the modern city.

Originally called Ciudad de los Reyes (City of the Kings) by the Spanish, Lima was founded in 1535 by Francisco Pizarro as the base of operations for the conquistadores. Pizarro chose the site due to its location near the Rímac River and the port of Callao. Six years after he founded the city, Pizarro was assassinated in Lima as a result of power disputes between the conquistadores. The city prospered for many years, eventually becoming the unofficial capital of Spain's South American empire. Lima's position as the capital of the viceroyalty during the Spanish Inquisition contributed to the city's enduring and overwhelming Catholicism.

Despite its status, Lima was slow to develop. The city's development was further hindered by a devastating earthquake in 1746. Limeños turned the tragedy into an opportunity to reinvent their city. Modern Lima's wide streets and distinctive, ornate architecture are part of the legacy of this rebuilding effort, which adopted much of the style of Enlightenment Europe.

Ultimately, Peru came to resent Spain's imperial rule, although it was the last South American country to rebel against the Spanish Empire. Eventually, Argentine soldier José de San Martín drove the Spanish forces from Lima and, later, all of Peru. Peru formally declared its independence on July 28, 1821.

Lima finally began growing into a modern city in 1851, with the completion of the Lima-Callao railroad. During the War of the Pacific (1879–83), Lima experienced political turmoil, and eventually the city fell to the Chilean military, which occupied Lima from 1881 to 1883 and burned the National Library.

In the early twentieth century, the arrival of automobiles prompted Lima to expand its road systems, and to build roads that connected the city to other parts of Peru. This expansion elevated Lima's status once again, and brought in thousands of immigrants from other parts of Peru and South America who were looking for work in the bustling capital. Unfortunately, this unchecked influx of people had devastating consequences for Lima, which had trouble absorbing so many people.

The latter half of the twentieth century brought a major economic downturn, while migration from rural residents looking for work in the city increased; about two million people migrated to Lima between 1940 and 1980. These migrants eventually settled just outside Lima's historic center, creating shantytowns that eventually housed almost half of Lima's population. Some of the shantytowns (barriadas) have actually developed into neighborhoods or pueblos jóvenes (young towns), but others still have no electricity or plumbing.

In 2000, Lima was the site of rioting and upheaval after the election of controversial Peruvian president Alberto Fujimori to a third five-year term. The Peruvian media largely ignored the protests and refused to cover the disturbance in the city, which further angered many of the protesters. In spite of the turmoil surrounding Fujimori's presidency, he maintained significant support in Lima, where he announced in 2001 that he would step down before the end of his term. In 2009, Fujimori received a twenty-five-year prison sentence for human rights violations and corruption, and in June 2013, then president Ollanta Humala refused to pardon an ailing Fujimori. Former investment banker Pablo Kuczynski was elected president in 2016 after promising to fight income inequality and further modernize the country. Tens of thousands took to the streets of Lima in protest again in 2017, when Kuczynski pardoned Fujimori, and in 2018, when leaked video revealed corruption within the judiciary.

A fire in 2001, started accidentally by a group of young boys playing with fireworks, eventually destroyed four city blocks in downtown Lima and killed more than 250 people. The fire started in the Mesa Redonda commercial district of the city, where fireworks—often illegally imported—are sold in large numbers in late December.

In August 2007, another earthquake hit Peru, killing over 400 people and injuring over 1,300. Although Lima was not directly affected by the quake, the nearby city of Ica was devastated. It was reported that nearly 17,000 Peruvians were impacted by the disaster.

In October 2013, Lima was selected to host the 2019 Pan American and Parapan Games. They were also selected to host the 2025 Bolivarian Games and 2027 Pan American Games.

Throughout the 2020s, protests erupted throughout Lima and the rest of Peru due to tensions between the people and the government. A major set of protests occurred in 2022 when then-president Pedro Castillo attempted a coup. Castillo was arrested, and in 2025, he was sentenced to over eleven years in prison. He and his former ministers Betssy Chávez and Aníbal Torres were also obligated to pay over $3 million USD to Peru for civil reparations. Chávez also received an eleven-year prison sentence, while Torres received a nearly seven-year sentence.


Bibliography

Aguirre, Carlos. "Punishment and Extermination: The Massacre of Political Prisoners in Lima, Peru, June 1986." Bulletin of Latin American Research, vol. 32, 2013, pp. 193–216.

Bregman, Scott. "36 Sports Set for 2027 Pan American Games in Lima, Peru." International Olympic Committee, 20 June 2025, www.olympics.com/en/news/36-sports-set-for-2027-pan-american-games-in-lima-peru. Accessed 5 June 2026.

"Employed Population in Lima Metropolitan Area Grew 4.7% between December of 2025 and February of 2026." Peruvian State, 15 Mar. 2026, www.gob.pe/en/institucion/inei/noticias/1366095-poblacion-ocupada-en-lima-metropolitana-crecio-4-7-entre-diciembre-de-2025-y-febrero-de-2026. Accessed 5 June 2026.

"GDP (Current US$) - Peru." World Bank Group, 2024, data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=PE. Accessed 5 June 2026.

Hosne, Ana Carolina. The Jesuit Missions to China and Peru, 1570–1610. Routledge, 2013.

"Local Climate Change Plan for the Province of Lima--Peru." Interlace, Urban Governance Atlas, 26 July 2023, interlace-hub.com/local-climate-change-plan-province-lima-peru. Accessed 5 June 2026.

Marina Lopez, Diego. "Peru’s Supreme Court Sentences Former President Pedro Castillo to Over 11 Years in Prison for Failed 2022 Self-Coup." Perú Reports, www.perureports.com/perus-supreme-court-sentences-former-president-pedro-castillo-to-over-11-years-in-prison-for-failed-2022-self-coup/10686/. Accessed 5 June 2026.

"Modernizing Traffic Management in Lima with World Bank Support." World Bank Group, 15 Oct. 2024, www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2024/10/15/modernizing-traffic-management-in-lima-with-world-bank-support. Accessed 5 June 2026.

Osorio, Alejandra B. Inventing Lima: Baroque Modernity in Peru's South Sea Metropolis. Palgrave, 2008.

"Peru Approves its National Plan for Adaptation to Climate Change by 2050." Fundación Empresa & Clima, 29 Apr. 2022, www.empresaclima.org/en/articulo-de-prensa/peru-approves-its-national-plan-for-adaptation-to-climate-change-by-2050. Accessed 5 June 2026.

Preston, Robert. "First Section of Lima Metro Line 2 Opens." International Railway Journal, 22 Jan. 2024, www.railjournal.com/passenger/metros/first-section-of-lima-metro-line-2-opens/. Accessed 5 June 2026.

Ramos, Gabriela. Death and Conversion in the Andes: Lima and Cuzco, 1532–1670. U of Notre Dame P, 2010.

"Results." Census 2025, Instituto Nacional de Estadistica e Informatica, 2025,censos2025.inei.gob.pe/resultados/dashboard. Accessed 5 June 2026.

Schulte-Bockholt, Alfredo. Criminal Governance in Peru During the Fujimori Era. Lang, 2013.

World Trade Press. Peru: Society & Culture. World Trade, 2011.

Full Article

Lima is the capital of Peru and the country's largest city. Its name comes from the Quechua word for "talker," although the city is often known by its nickname, El Pulpo ("The Octopus"), so called because of its sprawling landscape and cultural influence. One of the city's less positive nicknames is "Lima la Horrible," used by people upset with Lima's modernization efforts. They claim that the process of modernization has favored the wealthiest citizens, leaving poorer Limeños in conditions that are as bad as or worse than they were prior to the city's expansion.

Landscape

Lima covers an area of approximately 2,672 square kilometers (1,032 square miles), making it one of the largest metropolitan areas in South America. The city is located west of the Andes, on the southern bank of the Rímac River, 13 kilometers (8 miles) inland from the Pacific Ocean. It is surrounded by the Peruvian coastal desert, which has almost no native plant or animal life. Lima’s coastal landscape has been shaped primarily by tectonic and marine forces. The region remains geologically active, with frequent earthquakes and ongoing cliff erosion posing risks to infrastructure.

Lima has been affected by climate change, which has led to rising temperatures and sea levels. As a coastal city within a desert ecosystem, it is particularly vulnerable to water scarcity. In response, the Government of Peru, through the Ministry of the Environment (Minam), has approved the National Plan for Adaptation to Climate Change by 2050, an initiative aimed at reducing the country’s vulnerability to climate-related impacts. Traditionally, Lima receives an average annual rainfall of just 0.7 centimeters (0.3 inches), making it one of the driest major cities in the world. The city is typically overcast, with a persistent low cloud cover called garúa that blankets the area for much of the year. Although January and February are the sunniest months, Lima generally experiences limited sunshine and sparse greenery. When sunlight does break through the fog, the city can experience intense heat and humidity. The garúa also traps air pollutants, contributing to poor air quality. The Humboldt Current helps moderate temperatures most of the year in this otherwise tropical zone. Average monthly temperatures range from 16 to 19 degrees Celsius (60 to 66 degrees Fahrenheit) during winter (May to November) and can reach up to 27 degrees Celsius (80 degrees Fahrenheit) in the summer months (December to April).

People

According to Peru's 2025 Census, Lima had a population of 10.13 million. That year, the total population of Peru was 334,157,732. In Peru, class distinctions outweigh ethnic identity as the primary basis of social categorization, so the Census does not include ethnic demographic data. A 2017 estimate reported that Peru’s population was composed of 60.2 percent Mestizo (mixed Indigenous and White), 25.8 percent Indigenous, 5.9 percent White, 3.6 percent of African descent, 1.2 percent other (including Chinese and Japanese descent), and 3.3 percent unspecified. 

Many wealthy Limeños maintain winter homes on the outskirts of the city, where the climate is more hospitable and free of the garúa. Access to reliable utilities, such as indoor plumbing and adequate food supply, is largely limited to the city’s wealthier residents.

In contrast, large portions of the population reside in informal settlements or shantytowns. Inner-city areas—formerly aristocratic neighborhoods known as tugurios, corralones, and callejones—have been converted into overcrowded tenements that now house many of the city's poorer residents, especially recent migrants. Various urban renewal initiatives have aimed to improve conditions in areas like El Cercado, though progress remains uneven.

By 2017, approximately two-thirds of greater Lima’s population was Roman Catholic, around 750,000 were evangelical Protestants, and fewer than half a million adhered to other religions or were unaffiliated.

Economy

Lima is both a major port and the country's primary business center. It serves as Peru’s financial and industrial hub and contributes significantly to national GDP, which the World Bank reported to be $289.22 billion USD in 2024. The city's industrial corridor, historically centered around Callao-Lima-Vitarte, encompasses a range of sectors, including food processing, construction, vehicle maintenance, and retail. Key products include processed fish, cement, meat, furniture, and metal goods.

The employment landscape in Lima experienced severe setbacks in the 1990s, when the privatization of state-owned enterprises coincided with a national recession. Between 1997 and 1999, economic decline pushed nearly half the population below the poverty line. While Lima attracts the majority of Peru’s manufacturing businesses due to its large labor pool, not all residents seeking employment are absorbed by the formal sector. Between December 2025 and February 2026, Lima’s unemployment rate stood at 6.4 percent, according to the National Institute of Statistics and Informatics (INEI).

Lima’s urban infrastructure, particularly transportation, has long faced challenges. The city’s roadways are often congested, and public transit has historically relied on aging systems, including South America’s oldest rail line. In response to growing demand, deregulation in the 1990s led to the emergence of a large informal taxi sector. Between 2003 and 2011, the World Bank supported the development of a rapid-bus transit system aimed at improving mobility for residents on the city’s periphery. In parallel, construction of Line 1 of the Lima Metro began in 2010 and became operational in 2012. A second line, granted to the Consorcio Nuevo Metro de Lima in 2014, was completed by 2023, with six additional light-rail lines planned. However, municipal leadership has faced criticism for prioritizing automobile infrastructure over pedestrian accessibility, raising concerns about worsening congestion and sustainability.

Landmarks

Many ancient structures are still standing in Lima. The Templo de Pachacamac, in the Lurín district, was built by the Wari (Huari) people to honor the Hacedor del Mundo (Creator of the World). Many sections of the Lima City Walls, built by the Spanish to protect the city from pirates, are still standing and are a major tourist attraction in Lima.

Due to the Spanish conquistadores' mission to convert the native people to Catholicism, Lima is home to many churches. In fact, there is a church on almost every street in the city. Lima's rich metal mines were a boon to the city's early economic development and also resulted in ornately decorated churches, which often had silver or gold altars and ornaments.

The Pueblo Libre district is home to most of Lima's museums, including the Museo Nacional de Antropología, Arqueología e Historia, and the Museo de Oro del Perú, both of which have numerous artifacts from Lima's ancient civilizations on display. In 1988, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) declared Lima's Historic Center a World Heritage Site. The Plaza Mayor, home to the Lima Cathedral and the Presidential Palace, is located in this historic district. The Convento de San Francisco, built in the seventeenth century, is known both for its neoclassical architecture and the extensive catacombs beneath it.

History

The earliest known inhabitants of the area where Lima now stands were hunters and harpoon fishers; remains of these early inhabitants suggest that they lived in Lima more than one thousand years ago. Several different tribes inhabited the area for centuries, leaving their mark on modern-day Lima in the form of adobe buildings and temples. A tribe called the Wari (or Huari) dominated the region for years before eventually declining and being supplanted by the Chancay.

In the fifteenth century, the Inca population rose to prominence. The Incas would dominate the city until the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores and would ultimately help shape the character of the modern city.

Originally called Ciudad de los Reyes (City of the Kings) by the Spanish, Lima was founded in 1535 by Francisco Pizarro as the base of operations for the conquistadores. Pizarro chose the site due to its location near the Rímac River and the port of Callao. Six years after he founded the city, Pizarro was assassinated in Lima as a result of power disputes between the conquistadores. The city prospered for many years, eventually becoming the unofficial capital of Spain's South American empire. Lima's position as the capital of the viceroyalty during the Spanish Inquisition contributed to the city's enduring and overwhelming Catholicism.

Despite its status, Lima was slow to develop. The city's development was further hindered by a devastating earthquake in 1746. Limeños turned the tragedy into an opportunity to reinvent their city. Modern Lima's wide streets and distinctive, ornate architecture are part of the legacy of this rebuilding effort, which adopted much of the style of Enlightenment Europe.

Ultimately, Peru came to resent Spain's imperial rule, although it was the last South American country to rebel against the Spanish Empire. Eventually, Argentine soldier José de San Martín drove the Spanish forces from Lima and, later, all of Peru. Peru formally declared its independence on July 28, 1821.

Lima finally began growing into a modern city in 1851, with the completion of the Lima-Callao railroad. During the War of the Pacific (1879–83), Lima experienced political turmoil, and eventually the city fell to the Chilean military, which occupied Lima from 1881 to 1883 and burned the National Library.

In the early twentieth century, the arrival of automobiles prompted Lima to expand its road systems, and to build roads that connected the city to other parts of Peru. This expansion elevated Lima's status once again, and brought in thousands of immigrants from other parts of Peru and South America who were looking for work in the bustling capital. Unfortunately, this unchecked influx of people had devastating consequences for Lima, which had trouble absorbing so many people.

The latter half of the twentieth century brought a major economic downturn, while migration from rural residents looking for work in the city increased; about two million people migrated to Lima between 1940 and 1980. These migrants eventually settled just outside Lima's historic center, creating shantytowns that eventually housed almost half of Lima's population. Some of the shantytowns (barriadas) have actually developed into neighborhoods or pueblos jóvenes (young towns), but others still have no electricity or plumbing.

In 2000, Lima was the site of rioting and upheaval after the election of controversial Peruvian president Alberto Fujimori to a third five-year term. The Peruvian media largely ignored the protests and refused to cover the disturbance in the city, which further angered many of the protesters. In spite of the turmoil surrounding Fujimori's presidency, he maintained significant support in Lima, where he announced in 2001 that he would step down before the end of his term. In 2009, Fujimori received a twenty-five-year prison sentence for human rights violations and corruption, and in June 2013, then president Ollanta Humala refused to pardon an ailing Fujimori. Former investment banker Pablo Kuczynski was elected president in 2016 after promising to fight income inequality and further modernize the country. Tens of thousands took to the streets of Lima in protest again in 2017, when Kuczynski pardoned Fujimori, and in 2018, when leaked video revealed corruption within the judiciary.

A fire in 2001, started accidentally by a group of young boys playing with fireworks, eventually destroyed four city blocks in downtown Lima and killed more than 250 people. The fire started in the Mesa Redonda commercial district of the city, where fireworks—often illegally imported—are sold in large numbers in late December.

In August 2007, another earthquake hit Peru, killing over 400 people and injuring over 1,300. Although Lima was not directly affected by the quake, the nearby city of Ica was devastated. It was reported that nearly 17,000 Peruvians were impacted by the disaster.

In October 2013, Lima was selected to host the 2019 Pan American and Parapan Games. They were also selected to host the 2025 Bolivarian Games and 2027 Pan American Games.

Throughout the 2020s, protests erupted throughout Lima and the rest of Peru due to tensions between the people and the government. A major set of protests occurred in 2022 when then-president Pedro Castillo attempted a coup. Castillo was arrested, and in 2025, he was sentenced to over eleven years in prison. He and his former ministers Betssy Chávez and Aníbal Torres were also obligated to pay over $3 million USD to Peru for civil reparations. Chávez also received an eleven-year prison sentence, while Torres received a nearly seven-year sentence.


Bibliography

Aguirre, Carlos. "Punishment and Extermination: The Massacre of Political Prisoners in Lima, Peru, June 1986." Bulletin of Latin American Research, vol. 32, 2013, pp. 193–216.

Bregman, Scott. "36 Sports Set for 2027 Pan American Games in Lima, Peru." International Olympic Committee, 20 June 2025, www.olympics.com/en/news/36-sports-set-for-2027-pan-american-games-in-lima-peru. Accessed 5 June 2026.

"Employed Population in Lima Metropolitan Area Grew 4.7% between December of 2025 and February of 2026." Peruvian State, 15 Mar. 2026, www.gob.pe/en/institucion/inei/noticias/1366095-poblacion-ocupada-en-lima-metropolitana-crecio-4-7-entre-diciembre-de-2025-y-febrero-de-2026. Accessed 5 June 2026.

"GDP (Current US$) - Peru." World Bank Group, 2024, data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=PE. Accessed 5 June 2026.

Hosne, Ana Carolina. The Jesuit Missions to China and Peru, 1570–1610. Routledge, 2013.

"Local Climate Change Plan for the Province of Lima--Peru." Interlace, Urban Governance Atlas, 26 July 2023, interlace-hub.com/local-climate-change-plan-province-lima-peru. Accessed 5 June 2026.

Marina Lopez, Diego. "Peru’s Supreme Court Sentences Former President Pedro Castillo to Over 11 Years in Prison for Failed 2022 Self-Coup." Perú Reports, www.perureports.com/perus-supreme-court-sentences-former-president-pedro-castillo-to-over-11-years-in-prison-for-failed-2022-self-coup/10686/. Accessed 5 June 2026.

"Modernizing Traffic Management in Lima with World Bank Support." World Bank Group, 15 Oct. 2024, www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2024/10/15/modernizing-traffic-management-in-lima-with-world-bank-support. Accessed 5 June 2026.

Osorio, Alejandra B. Inventing Lima: Baroque Modernity in Peru's South Sea Metropolis. Palgrave, 2008.

"Peru Approves its National Plan for Adaptation to Climate Change by 2050." Fundación Empresa & Clima, 29 Apr. 2022, www.empresaclima.org/en/articulo-de-prensa/peru-approves-its-national-plan-for-adaptation-to-climate-change-by-2050. Accessed 5 June 2026.

Preston, Robert. "First Section of Lima Metro Line 2 Opens." International Railway Journal, 22 Jan. 2024, www.railjournal.com/passenger/metros/first-section-of-lima-metro-line-2-opens/. Accessed 5 June 2026.

Ramos, Gabriela. Death and Conversion in the Andes: Lima and Cuzco, 1532–1670. U of Notre Dame P, 2010.

"Results." Census 2025, Instituto Nacional de Estadistica e Informatica, 2025,censos2025.inei.gob.pe/resultados/dashboard. Accessed 5 June 2026.

Schulte-Bockholt, Alfredo. Criminal Governance in Peru During the Fujimori Era. Lang, 2013.

World Trade Press. Peru: Society & Culture. World Trade, 2011.

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