Android (robot)

An android is an artificial being that resembles a human. In most instances, it refers to a robot. The exact definition and qualifications for an android have been debated for many years. Some definitions state that they must be able to emulate humans perfectly, and some critics argue that a true android has yet to be created. Others contend that an android simply must visually resemble a human and (typically) be capable of human speech. 

The complexity of the human anatomy and brain poses immense challenges to the creation of androids, and those that were created in the twentieth or early twenty-first century have had limited functionality in comparison to their human counterparts. By the early twenty-first century, several groups had created robots that resembled humans to some degree and could employ a range of facial expressions, carry out numerous actions, and recognize people. Notable examples include Hiroshi Ishiguro’s Intelligent Robotics Lab and Nadia Thalmann’s work with the Nanyang Technological University in Singapore.

Brief History

The history of androids as both concept and creation is closely tied to the history of robotics. Robot refers to a machine that can operate and complete tasks independently of direct human control, though they usually follow computer programs set by humans. In this context, android refers to a specific type of robot, since not all robots resemble humans. The term android is a combination of the Greek terms for “man” and “in the likeness of.” It entered popular use in the nineteenth century.

However, the field of robotics dates back thousands of years. Some ancient societies employed constructs that were the predecessors of modern robots. For instance, Egyptians used hydraulics to operate human-shaped statues. Petronius Arbiter, who lived during the first century CE, is supposed to have created a moving doll. In 1557, Giovanni Torriani reportedly created a machine out of wood that could retrieve items. Still, it was not until the beginning of the twentieth century that the notion of artificial humans grew more popular in fiction.

The first robot to follow computer programming was created in the second half of the twentieth century. Inventor George Devol created what he called the Unimate, a robotic arm intended to operate on assembly lines of manufacturing plants. The advent of computer programming and artificial intelligence made the creation of androids much more feasible. Numerous engineering companies and scientific organizations across the world began striving to create robots that resembled humans and could mimic human behaviors.

Tokyo’s Waseda University made a breakthrough in 1973 when it constructed Wabot-1. It was capable of walking on two legs and speaking Japanese. A decade later, it produced Wabot-2, which could read musical scores and perform some pieces.

In the late twentieth century, humanoid robots increased drastically, though designers still struggled with mobility and complex actions. Battelle’s Pacific Northwest Laboratories designed Manny, which matched an adult human in size and had an artificial respiratory system but could only move by crawling.

As the twenty-first century began, a much more advanced generation of androids emerged. While mobility was still an obstacle, robots capable of supporting themselves and walking on two legs became more common. They could also emulate facial expressions and perform a wider array of actions.

Robots were utilized by hospitals and healthcare facilities during the COVID-19 global pandemic to alleviate burnout among nurses, delivering medications and transporting lab reports. By 2025, researchers were testing humanoid robots in hospitals to provide surgical assistance by performing precise movements. Robots even assisted in physical therapy by guiding patients through exercises and ensuring that movements were performed correctly. They have played an important role in telemedicine as well by providing care to patients who are unable to travel to a healthcare facility.

Schools throughout the world have also implemented the use of androids. In some cases, they have helped reduce the workload of teachers in the form of teaching aids, tools for robotics, and learning companions. They have served as teacher assistants and personal tutors. In some school districts, students even program the androids, which helps them learn about automation and robotics. However, experts point out that the high cost of androids prevents some districts from acquiring them. Teachers also often lack the time and training to integrate robotics into their classrooms. These challenges must be addressed before schools and other sectors start using androids to enhance learning, productivity, precision, and efficiency.

Impact

Although the most advanced androids can only replicate human functions, they have taught scientists a great deal. The attempts to emulate humanity have helped scientists gain a better understanding of how the human body and mind function. These endeavors have helped advance engineering, programming, and artificial intelligence. Androids have also found use in entertainment venues. Disney has been a major pioneer in physical android development and has attempted to create soft and durable characters suited for interacting with children.

Humans’ bipedal posture is sometimes difficult for machines to mimic. In addition, powering the degree of functionality in human hands requires many inner workings, which are difficult to incorporate into a machine of human proportions. The human mind is one of the biggest obstacles, though. While twenty-first-century androids are able to retain a great deal of information, process large amounts of data, and emulate many mental functions, they can only imitate a small fraction of human actions, particularly in areas of adaptability, reasoning, and emotional understanding.

Another obstacle is how people interacting with androids perceive them. The intent with most android development is to reach a point where androids can interact with society to some extent, usually by carrying out tasks that are too difficult, dangerous, or unpleasant for most humans. However, many people who interact with androids report feeling unnerved. This is a phenomenon known as the “uncanny valley,” which Masahiro Mori first discussed in 1970. It suggests that the appearance of something nearly but not quite human results in creepy or unpleasant feelings. The feelings grow stronger the more the being looks like a human. Such feelings eventually decline as the resemblance nears perfection. Observers then accept the being as an equal.

Androids have been a popular subject of science fiction stories since the early twentieth century. The 1927 film Metropolis was an early story that featured an android as a character. During the mid-twentieth century, author Isaac Asimov played a major role in developing the concept of androids and bringing it to the masses. He wrote multiple books, including the Robot series, that revolved around robots and androids and how they integrated with human society. He also came up with the Three Laws of Robotics, laws programmed into each robot in his stories. These laws state that robots cannot harm a human or allow a human to be harmed, robots must listen to orders given to them by humans unless they would bring harm to a human, and robots must protect their existence, as long as doing so would not cause harm to a human or force them to disobey a human. These laws have been adopted in other stories involving robots and, in a few instances, even by real-world roboticists.

In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, androids have been used in fiction to explore the nature of humanity. Notable examples include the 1982 film Blade Runner, the 1980s and 1990s television show Star Trek: The Next Generation, and the films A.I. Artificial Intelligence (2001), Ex Machina (2015), M3gan (2022), and Companion (2025).

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