Engineering

Summary

Engineering is the application of scientific and mathematical principles for practical purposes. Engineering is subdivided into many disciplines; all create new products and make existing products or systems work more efficiently, faster, safer, or at less cost. The products of engineering are ubiquitous and range from the familiar, such as microwave ovens and sound systems in movie theaters, to the complex, such as rocket propulsion systems and genetic engineering.

Definition and Basic Principles

Engineering is a broad field in which practitioners attempt to solve problems. Engineers work within strict parameters set by the physical universe. Engineers first observe and experiment with various phenomena, then express their findings in mathematical and chemical formulas. The generalizations that describe the physical universe are called laws or principles and include gravity, the speed of light, the speed of sound, the basic building or subatomic particles of matter, the chemical construction of compounds, and the thermodynamic relationship that to produce energy requires energy. The fundamental composition of the universe is divided into matter and energy. The potential exists to convert matter into energy and vice versa. The physical universe sets the rules for engineers, whether the project is designing a booster rocket to lift thousands of tons into outer space or creating a probe for surgery on an infant's heart.

Engineering is a rigorous, demanding discipline because all work must be done with regard to the laws of the physical universe. Products and systems must withstand rigorous independent trials. A team in Utah, for example, must be able to replicate the work of a team in Ukraine. Engineers develop projects using the scientific method, which has four parts: observing, generalizing, theorizing, and testing.

Background and History

The first prehistoric humans to use a branch as a lever might be called engineers, although they never knew about fulcrums. The people who designed and built the pyramids of Giza (2500 BCE) were engineers. The term "engineer" derives from the medieval Latin word ingeniator, a person with "ingenium," connoting curiosity and brilliance. Leonardo da Vinci, who used mathematics and scientific principles in everything from his paintings to his designs for military fortifications, was called the Ingegnere Generale (general engineer). Galileo is credited with seeking a systematic explanation for phenomena and adopting a scientific approach to problem solving. In 1600, William Gilbert, considered the first electrical engineer, published De magnete, magneticisque corporibus et de magno magnete tellure (A New Natural Philosophy of the Magnet, Magnetic Bodies, and the Great Terrestrial Magnet, 1893; better known as De magnete) and coined the term "electricity."

Until the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, engineering was done using trial and error. The British are credited with developing mechanical engineering, including the first steam engine prototype developed by Thomas Savery in 1698 and the first practical steam engine developed by James Watt in the 1760s.

Military situations often propel civilian advancements, as illustrated by World War II. The need for advances in flight, transportation, communication, mass production, and distribution fostered growth in the fields of aerospace, telecommunication, computers, automation, artificial intelligence, and robotics. In the twenty-first century, biomedical engineering spurred advances in medicine with developments such as synthetic body parts and genetic testing.

How It Works

Engineering is made up of specialties and subspecialties. Scientific discoveries and new problems constantly create opportunities for additional subspecialties. Nevertheless, all engineers work the same way. When presented with a problem to solve, they research the issue, design and develop a solution, and test and evaluate it.

For example, to create tiles for the underbelly of the space shuttle, engineers begin by researching the conditions under which the tiles must function. They examine the total area covered by the tiles, their individual size and weight, and temperature and frictional variations that affect the stability and longevity of the tiles. They decide how the tiles will be secured and interact with the materials adjacent to them. They also must consider budgets and deadlines.

Collaboration. Engineering is collaborative. For example, if a laboratory requires a better centrifuge, the laboratory needs designers with knowledge in materials, wiring, and metal casting. If the metal used is unusual or scarce, mining engineers need to determine the feasibility of providing the metal. At the assembly factory, an industrial engineer alters the assembly line to create the centrifuge. Through this collaborative process, the improved centrifuge enables a biomedical engineer to produce a life-saving drug.

Communication. The collaborative nature of engineering means everyone relies on proven scientific knowledge and symbols clearly communicated among engineers and customers. The increasingly complex group activity of engineering and the need to communicate it to a variety of audiences has resulted in the emergence of the field of technical communications, which specializes in the creation of written, spoken, and graphic materials that are clear, unambiguous, and technically accurate.

Design and Development. Design and development are often initially at odds with each other. For example, in an architectural team assigned with creating the tallest building in the world, the design engineer is likely to be very concerned with the aesthetics of the building in a desire to please the client and the city's urban planners. However, the development engineer may not approve the design, no matter how beautiful, because the forces of nature (such as wind shear on a mile-high building) might not allow for facets of the design. The aesthetics of design and the practical concerns of development typically generate a certain level of tension. The ultimate engineering challenge is to develop materials or methods that withstand these forces of nature or otherwise circumvent them, allowing designs, products, and processes that previously were impossible.

Testing. With computers and tools such as computer-aided design (CAD) software, designs that once took days to draw can be created in hours. Similarly, computers allow a prototype (or trial product) to be quickly produced. Advances in computer simulation make it easier to conduct tests. Testing can be done multiple times and under a broad range of harsh conditions. For example, computer simulation is used to test the composite materials that are increasingly used in place of wood in building infrastructures. These composites are useful for a variety of reasons, including fire retardation. If used as beams in a multistory building, they must be able to withstand tremendous bending and heat forces. Testing also examines the materials' compatibility with the ground conditions at the building site, including the potential for earthquakes or other disasters.

Financial Considerations. Financial parameters often vie with the human cost, as in biomedical advancements. If a new drug or stent material is rushed into production without proper testing to maximize the profit of the developing company, patients may suffer. Experimenting with new concrete materials without determining the proper drying time might lower the cost of their development, but buildings or bridges could collapse. Dollars and humanity are always at the forefront of any engineering project.

Applications and Products

The collaborative nature of engineering requires the cooperation of engineers with various types of knowledge to solve any single problem. Each branch of engineering has specialized knowledge and expertise.

Aerospace. The field of aerospace engineering is divided into aeronautical engineering, which deals with aircraft that remain in the Earth's atmosphere, and astronautical engineering, which deals with spacecraft. Aircraft and spacecraft must endure extreme changes in temperature and atmospheric pressure and withstand massive structural loads. Weight and cost considerations are paramount, as is reliability. Engineers have developed new composite materials to reduce the weight of aircraft and enhance fuel efficiency and have altered spacecraft design to help control the friction generated when spacecraft leave and reenter the Earth's atmosphere. These developments have influenced earthbound transportation, from cars to bullet trains.

Architectural. The field of architectural engineering applies the principles of engineering to the design and construction of buildings. Architectural engineers address the electrical, mechanical, and structural aspects of a building's design as well as its appearance and how it fits in its environment. Areas of concern to architectural engineers include plumbing, lighting, acoustics, energy conservation, and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC). Architectural engineers must also make sure that buildings they design meet all regulations regarding accessibility and safety in addition to being fully functional.

Bioengineering. The field of bioengineering involves using the principles of engineering in biology, medicine, environmental studies, and agriculture. Bioengineering is often used to refer to biomedical engineering, which involves the development of artificial limbs and organs, including ceramic knees and hips, pacemakers, stents, artificial eye lenses, skin grafts, cochlear implants, and artificial hands. However, bioengineering also has many other applications, including the creation of genetically modified foods that are resistant to pests, drugs that prevent organ rejection after a transplant operation, and chemical coatings for a stent placed in a heart blood vessel that will make the implantation less stressful for the body. Bioengineers must concern themselves with not only the biological and mechanical functionality of their creations but also financial and social issues such as ethical concerns.

Chemical. Everything in the universe is made up of chemicals. Engineers in the field of chemical engineering develop a wide range of materials, including fertilizers to increase crop production, the building materials for a submarine, and fabric for everything from clothing to tents. They may also be involved in finding, mining, processing, and distributing fuels and other materials. Chemical engineers also work on processes, such as improving water quality or developing less-polluting, readily available, inexpensive fuels.

Civil. Some of the largest engineering projects are in the field of civil engineering, which involves the design, construction, and maintenance of infrastructure such as roads, tunnels, bridges, canals, dams, airports, and sewage and water systems. Examples include the interstate highway system, the Hoover Dam, and the Brooklyn Bridge. Completion of civil engineering projects often results in major shifts in population distribution and changes in how people live. For example, the highway system allowed fresh produce to be shipped to northern states in the wintertime, improving the diets of those who lived there. Originally, the term "civil engineer" was used to distinguish between engineers who worked on public projects and military engineers who worked on military projects such as topographical maps and the building of forts. The subspecialties of civil engineering include construction engineering, irrigation engineering, transportation engineering, soils and foundation engineering, geodetic engineering, hydraulic engineering, and coastal and ocean engineering

Computer. The field of computer engineering has two main focusesthe design and development of hardware and of the accompanying software. Computer hardware refers to the circuits and architecture of the computer, and software refers to the computer programs that run the computer. The hardware does only what the software instructs it to do, and the software is limited by the hardware. Computer engineers may research, design, develop, test, and install hardware such as computer chips, circuit boards, systems, modems, keyboards, printers, or computers embedded in various electronic products, such as the tracking devices used to monitor parolees. They may also create, maintain, test, and install software for mainframes, personal computers, electronic devices, and smartphones. Computer programs range from simple to complex and from familiar to unfamiliar. Smartphone applications are extremely numerous, as are applications for personal computers. Software is used to track airplanes and other transportation, to browse the Web, to provide security for financial transactions and corporations, and to direct unmanned missiles to a precisely defined target. Computers can operate from a remote location. For example, anaerobic manure digesters are used to convert cattle manure to biogas that can be converted to energy, a biosolid that can be used as bedding or soil amendment, and a non-odorous liquid stream that can be used as fertilizer. These digesters can be placed on numerous cattle farms in different states and operated and controlled by computers miles away.

Electrical.Electrical engineering studies the uses of electricity and the equipment to generate and distribute electricity to homes and businesses. Without electrical engineering, smartphones, televisions, home appliances, and many life-saving medical devices would not exist. Computers could not turn on. The Global Positioning System (GPS) would be useless, and starting a car would require using a hand crank. This field of engineering is increasingly involved in investigating different ways to produce electricity, including alternative fuels such as biomass and solar and wind power.

Environmental. The growth in the world's population has been accompanied by increases in consumption and waste production. Environmental engineering is concerned with reducing existing pollution in the air, water, and land and preventing future harm to the environment. Issues addressed include pollution from manufacturing and other sources, the transportation of clean water, and the disposal of nonbiodegradable materials and hazardous and nuclear waste.

Industrial. Managing the production and delivery of any product is the expertise of industrial engineers. They observe the people, machines, information, and technology involved in the process from start to finish, looking for any areas that can be improved. Increasingly, they use computer simulations and robotics. They aim to increase efficiency, reduce costs, and ensure worker safety. For example, worker safety can be improved through ergonomics and using less stressful, easier-to-manipulate tools. The expertise of industrial engineers can have a major impact on the profitability of companies.

Manufacturing. Manufacturing engineering examines the equipment, tools, machines, and processes involved in manufacturing. It also examines how manufacturing systems are integrated. Its goals are to increase product quality, safety, output, and profitability by making sure that materials and labor are used optimally and waste—whether of time, labor, or materials—is minimized. For example, engineers may improve machinery that folds disposable diapers or that machines the gears for a truck, or they may reconfigure the product's packaging to better protect it or facilitate shipping. Increasingly, robots are used to do hazardous, messy, or highly repetitive work, such as painting or capping bottles.

Mechanical. The field of mechanical engineering is the oldest and largest specialty. Mechanical engineers create the machines that drive technology and industry and design tools used by other engineers. These machines and tools must be built to specifications regarding usage, maintenance, cost, and delivery. Mechanical engineers create both power-generating machinery such as turbines and power-using machinery such as elevators by taking advantage of the compressibility properties of fluids and gases.

Nuclear. Nuclear engineering requires expertise in the production, handling, utilization, and disposal of nuclear materials, which have inherent dangers as well as extensive potential. Nuclear materials are used in medicine for radiation treatments and diagnostic testing. They also function as a source of energy in nuclear power plants. Because of the danger of nuclear materials being used for weapons, nuclear engineering is subject to many governmental regulations designed to improve security.

Careers and Course Work

To pursue a career in engineering, one must obtain a degree from an accredited college in any of the major engineering fields. A bachelor's degree is sufficient for some positions, but by law, each engineering project must be approved by a licensed professional engineer (PE). To gain PE registration, an engineer must pass the comprehensive test administered by the National Society of Professional Engineers and work for a specified period. Additionally, each state has its requirements for being licensed, including an exam specific to the state. An engineer with a bachelor's degree may work with or without PE registration, obtain a master's degree or doctorate in a specialized engineering area, pursue an academic career, or obtain an MBA to work as a manager of engineers and products.

Social Context and Future Prospects

Engineering can prolong life through biomedical advances such as neonatal machinery and destroy life through unpiloted military equipment and nuclear weaponry. An ever-increasing number of people and their concentration in urban areas means that engineers must seek ways to provide more food safely and ensure an adequate supply of clean drinking water. These needs will create projects involving genetically engineered crops, urban agriculture, desalination facilities, and the restoration of contaminated rivers and streams. The never-ending quest for energy that does not cause global warming will remain fertile for research and development. In the 2020s, environmental engineers were developing methods to help combat climate change. They were experimenting with new ways to reduce carbon emissions when making steel and to power large ships with a hydrogen gas that contained 70 percent ammonia. Other research areas include smart grids, carbon capture storage, and self-healing materials.

Education initiatives are addressing the lack of people from marginalized communities, including women, Hispanics, African Americans, and American Indians, in US engineering programs. These programs support individuals who belong to marginalized groups in pursuing engineering education. Additionally, several charitable engineering organizations, like Engineers Against Poverty and Engineers for a Sustainable World, use their skills to give back to their community or the environment.

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