Shōtoku Taishi

Japanese regent

• Born: 574
• Birthplace: Yamato, Honshu, Japan
• Died: April 8, 0622
• Place of death: Yamato, Honshu, Japan

As regent for his aunt, Empress Suiko, Shōtoku is credited with strengthening the central government, solidifying the rule of the imperial family, and transforming Japan’s civilization through adoption of Confucian and Buddhist institutions and values.

Early Life

Little is known about the life of Shōtoku Taishi (shoh-toh-koo ti-shee); what is recorded is more legend than fact. The Nihon shoki (compiled 720 c.e.; Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697, 1896; best known as Nihon shoki) describes stages and events in Shōtoku’s life, beginning with a wondrous birth. His mother, the empress-consort, was walking near the imperial stables when she suddenly gave birth. Shōtoku was “able to speak at once and grew up so wise that he could listen to and understand ten men’s petitions simultaneously and decide their cases without error.”

Son of Emperor Yōmei (r. 585-587), Shōtoku rose to eminence in a time of intense political rivalry among several clans. Among these, the Yamato clan, claiming divine descent, was accepted as the imperial line by the fifth century, while the Soga and the Mononobe contended for the position closest to the throne. Interwoven with their political strife were disagreements over a newly arrived faith, Buddhism.

In 552, according to the Nihon shoki some sources have it as early as 538 the king of Paekche in Korea sent the emperor an image of Buddha along with scriptures and a letter recommending the worship of Buddha to bring blessings and prosperity on Japan. He had a twofold reason for his action: As a devoted Buddhist, he wanted to propagate Buddhist teachings, and as a ruler faced with powerful enemies, he hoped for an alliance with Japan.

The Japanese court was favorable to the new religion, but it asked the other clans for advice regarding its final acceptance or rejection. (In his youth, Shōtoku studied under a Korean Buddhist monk as well as a Confucian scholar, which indicates of the court’s openness to foreign culture.) The Soga and Mononobe took opposite sides in the ensuing dispute. Under its chieftain, Soga Umako, the Soga and its allies defeated the Mononobe in battle and, by 587, Buddhism’s status in Japan was secure. It would become a major vehicle for Soga Umako and Shōtoku in their joint efforts to strengthen Japan politically and culturally.

Life’s Work

Soga Umako placed his niece Suiko (r. 593-628) on the throne and arranged that she appoint Shōtoku regent. Shōtoku married Umako’s daughter, thus cementing an already close relationship. According to the Nihon shoki, Shōtoku “had general control of the government, and was entrusted with all the details of the administration.” For almost thirty years, the two men collaborated to establish a strong central government.

Nihon shoki, written at a time when the Soga were out of favor and power, credits Shōtoku with major achievements between 593 and 622. In book 22, two political moves by Shōtoku are listed: initiation of a twelve-cap system of court ranks and authorship of the Seventeen Article Constitution. The twelve-cap system was an innovation in that, at least theoretically, offices would be based on personal merit rather than on privileged class. In actuality, the new system, begun in 603, was primarily a means of distinguishing ranks by means of different cap patterns and colors. Shōtoku was concerned with creating a well-developed bureaucracy, dependent on the emperor’s will. Lineage remained very important in obtaining office, however, as it would well into the twentieth century.

Historians disagree over authorship of the Seventeen Article Constitution. Nevertheless, the Nihon shoki states that in 604 Shōtoku prepared the constitution as the fundamental law of the land. It was a set of moral and political principles, combining Buddhist and Confucian concepts and values. As did Buddhism, Confucianism came to Japan through Korea long a channel of Chinese culture to Japan.

In the fourth century, around 368-369, Japanese troops had invaded Korea, establishing a colony, Mimana, on the southern tip of the peninsula. In addition to the colony, three Korean states vied for dominance from the fourth to the seventh century: Silla, Paekche, and Koguryŏ. Silla gradually overthrew its rivals Mimana in 562, Paekche in 663, and Koguryŏ in 668 unifying Korea. The flow of refugees to Japan was at its height during the seventh century. Korean and Chinese immigrants brought with them continental culture, contributing many skills and much wealth to Japanese clans wherever they settled.

During the Sui Dynasty (581-618), China was seen by Japan’s leaders as a powerful nation, highly developed politically and culturally. Even pre-Sui, Chinese histories record Japanese missions to China. Although there had been missions during the first and second centuries, these remained sporadic, unlike the more sustained ones of the seventh through the ninth centuries. Clan chiefs were eager to select Chinese ideas and institutions that would strengthen the imperial line and their own power within the socioeconomic hierarchy. Umako and Shōtoku further believed that adopting Chinese institutions would help unify Japan and raise its cultural level. During Shōtoku’s regency, at least three embassies were sent to China in 600, 607, and 608. The Sui emperor responded with an embassy in 608. Japan was aiming not only at emulating China but also at becoming its equal.

Chinese influence is readily apparent in the Seventeen Article Constitution. Its first three articles give basic principles of government, and the remaining fourteen give practical guidelines for efficient functioning of the government: Value harmony, revere the “Three Treasures” (Buddha, the law, the monks), obey imperial commands, behave decorously, deal impartially with all cases, chastise the evil and encourage the good, fit the right man to the office, attend court early and retire late, observe good faith with one another, cease from wrath and learn from others, deal out sure reward and punishment, let the government alone levy taxes, attend to functions if you are an official, avoid envy, prefer public good to private, employ the people in [forced] labor at seasonable times, and consult with others on important matters.

Buddhism is specifically mentioned only in the second article. Shōtoku, although devoutly Buddhist, turned to Confucian models for guidance in reorganizing the government. Confucianism stressed cultivation of virtue and dedication to public service. These and other Confucian ideals are clearly evident in all the articles especially articles 1, 2, 4, 9, 10, 14, 15, and 17. Some of the articles, however, are more revelatory than others about the conditions that faced Shōtoku as he began his reform. For example, articles 12, 14, and 16 address abuses prevalent at the time: arbitrary taxation by clan lords, jealousy among officials, and the corvée (forced labor). Overall, the constitution aimed at subduing the clans under the throne and unifying the nation.

Significance

Perhaps Shōtoku Taishi was, as some historians claim, a puppet of Soga Umako. Nevertheless, he is revered by the Japanese as a wise ruler who unified the nation, opened direct relations with China, and, by importing continental civilization, raised Japan’s civilization to new heights. In particular, Shōtoku’s promotion of Buddhism through sponsorship of temples and temple schools, study of the scriptures, and advancement of the arts gave Japan a rich spiritual as well as artistic foundation for future development. This borrowing from and imitation of Chinese civilization would continue into the late ninth century. Fifteen missions were sent to Tang China (T’ang; 618-907) between 630 and 838.

Aided by Soga Umako, Shōtoku Taishi led Japan to a higher political and cultural plane than it had attained before his regency. A strong central government now curbed clan rivalries, and the expansion of Buddhist thought and art enriched all areas of life. The Taika reforms, begun in 645, would continue Shōtoku’s policy to bring all people directly under the power of the throne, united politically and spiritually.

Major Periods in Japanese History, 538-1912

Dates

• Period

538-710

• Asuka

710-794

• Nara

794-1185

• Heian

1185-1333

• Kamakura

1333-1336

• Kemmu Restoration

1336-1392

• Nanboku-cho

1336-1573

• Muromachi

1476-1615

• Sengoku (Warring States)

1573-1603

• Azuchi-Momoyama

1603-1867

• Tokugawa (Edo)

1868-1912

• Meiji

Bibliography

Aston, W. G., trans. Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to a.d. 697. 1896. Reprint. Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1972. The standard translation of one of the earliest works of Japanese history. Provides details about the life of Shōtoku Taishi and the impact of his reforms.

De Bary, William Theodore, et al., comps. Sources of Japanese Tradition. 2d ed. Vol. 1. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001. Contains complete reprints of the Seventeen Article Constitution as well as other important documents relating to Shōtoku Taishi’s life.

Reischauer, Edwin O. Japan: The Story of a Nation. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990. A concise history of Japan from its beginnings to 1973. Chapter 2, “The Adoption of the Chinese Pattern,” is most useful. Includes an excellent bibliography.

Sansom, George. A History of Japan to 1334. Vol. 1. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1958. This study begins with the origins of the Japanese and ends with the Mongol invasions. Chapter 3, “The Yamato State,” is the most helpful. Includes a very good bibliography and helpful footnotes.

Tamura, Yoshio. Japanese Buddhism: A Cultural History. Translated by Jeffrey Hunter. Tokyo: Tuttle, 2001. A detailed assessment of the cultural implications and historical development of Japanese Buddhism from the introduction of the faith to modern times, including details of Shōtoku Taishi’s life and his place in the development of the Buddhist religion in Japan.

Varley, H. Paul. Japanese Culture. 4th ed. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2000. Intended for the general reader, this study covers religion, philosophy, and the arts, and connects cultural with political and institutional trends. Includes an excellent bibliography.