Cosmetics chemistry

Definition:Cosmetics chemistry is the science behind the creation of products designed to alter a person’s external appearance or natural odor. Although the finished products created by those working in the field are part of a multibillion-dollar beauty industry, the scientists who formulate the products must be as versed in chemistry as their peers who work in major research facilities. Practitioners in the field must be familiar with the hundreds of different raw materials that are permissible in cosmetic formulations. Everything from hair- and skin-care products to deodorants and perfumes fall under the aegis of cosmetics chemistry.

Basic Principles

From their earliest history, human beings have adorned themselves to improve their appearance or augment physical attributes deemed desirable in a given culture. In the pictographs left by the ancient Egyptians thousands of years ago, people applied darkening compounds around the eyes to accentuate their features. The twenty-first-century cosmetics industry might utilize different materials than the Egyptians did, but the purpose of such adornment—improving one’s appearance—remains the same. At their core, cosmetics attempt to improve the external appearance or odor of the body. They are not, however, involved in curing ailments or improving bodily functions.

In the twenty-first century, scientists working with cosmetics occasionally face derision from their peers who deem the end result of cosmetics chemistry something less than hard science. Some claim that researchers in the field spend more time trying to copy the products of industry leaders than they do creating new items. In actuality, product production requires extensive knowledge of a myriad of substances and what results from their interactions. Furthermore, chemists in the field must also keep in mind functionality and cost. A chemical mixture produced in the lab that improved the elasticity of skin would not revolutionize the industry if it proved so expensive as to be out of reach of most consumers or if it smelled unpleasant. Cosmetic chemists must often balance science with marketing and an oftentimes fixed budget in their work. Larger firms that employ scientists are typically the best financed. Their teams of chemists are the most highly paid in the industry, just as their research is often exhaustive and cutting-edge.

Core Concepts

Emulsions and Emulsifiers. Cosmetics chemistry covers a variety of applications, including skin and hair care products, makeup of every variety, perfumes, colognes, and other items designed to alter one’s natural odor. Which area a cosmetics chemist works in will determine the nature of the employment experience and expectations. For those employed producing skin-care products, the most common medium is some form of emulsion. Emulsions are the result of one unmixable substance being suspended in droplet or globule form in another liquid. These immiscible (unmixable) products—usually some form of oil and water—are agitated so that they are dispersed in what is called the continuous phase. The two substances are still not completely mixed together but they are more evenly spread out. An emulsifier must be added in order to prevent the immiscible liquids from completely separating into what is called the dispersed phase. Emulsifiers thus bind oil droplets and keep them in place instead of allowing them to separate as they naturally would from the liquid. Each emulsifier molecule contains a hydrophilic (water loving) section and a lipophilic (oil loving) section. The hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) between these two sections will determine their use in the manufacturing of various creams and ointments. Product specifications will ultimately determine the type of emulsion employed. If a company seeks a greasier, longer-lasting product, it will utilize water suspended in oil mixture; when a less long-lasting formula is required companies will adopt an oil suspended in water mixture. At every stage of the process a chemist is needed to determine which mixtures to create and which emulsifier will best keep the consistency of the mixture. Trial-and-error experimentation serves as the principal means of creating a lotion blend that is agreeable both in terms of performance and in texture, but that also retains its stability for an extended period of time.

Fragrance. Almost as important as altering appearance through the use of cosmetics is the use of assorted perfumes, colognes, and deodorants to mask the body’s natural odor. Most fragrances consist of an assortment of ingredients blended to create the desired scent. Plant oils painstakingly extracted from organic matter are most often the key ingredient, followed by synthetic components—typically called fixatives—that ensure the oils utilized in the solution do not spoil and that impart a fragrance of their own. Numerous experiments are performed at this stage to ensure that the oils utilized will have the longest shelf-life possible. The oil mixture is next blended in a solvent. What percentage of the new compound is comprised of the oil mixture will ultimately determine its use. Perfumes, for examples, have a more concentrated oil composition in relation to solvent than do colognes. The quality of the finished product is a direct result of the raw materials employed in its creation. Despite the claims of companies that assert that their far cheaper formulation smells just like the higher priced original, perfume chemists know that the longevity and stability of the compound will erode far faster than if more expensive ingredients been employed.

Creating Color. Many of the cosmetic formulations are designed to change the appearance of the eyes, lips, hair, and other parts of the body through the application of color. Chemists employed by the cosmetics industry are always being pushed to produce more vibrant colors in long-lasting formulations that are superior to those produced by rival firms. Ingredients to make such colors vary depending on the nature of their use. Newer formulations such as certain skin tanning products react with proteins in the skin to create richer and darker hues. Lipsticks utilize a water-insoluble dye that can retain its hue even when exposed to saliva. There are a limited number of pigments available, with thousands of derivative color shades based on them. Consistent replication of each shade requires advanced chemical knowledge of the type of raw materials, along with the fillers and stabilizers needed that to reproduce a shade over and over again. Not only must chemists replicate the color palate, they must place it in a formulation that will not degrade and can be delivered in a usable format.

Cleaning the Body. Soaps, shampoos, and other cleaning agents are designed for the purpose of cleaning the body. Many such products do more than clean; they also include fragrances meant to enhance the freshness associated with bathing. Cleaning formulas utilize surface-active agents, or “surfactants,” that, like emulsions, contain water-soluble and fat-soluble components. By design, the lipophilic portion binds with dirt on the skin and the hair, while the hydrophilic portion carries the otherwise water-insoluble debris away. As in all phases of the cosmetics industry, chemists are needed to perfect the formulations and to research newer and more powerful ways to clean and deodorize the body.

Applications Past and Present

People, even ancient people, have always attempted various means of making themselves physically more appealing. The drive—whether an instinctual need to procreate or a more complex emotional need—to alter appearance is undeniable, and external appearance has been a crucial factor in shaping human evolution. Depending on the era, certain physical traits have been considered particularly desirable. The effort to achieve a certain look or accentuate a certain physical feature has led to a long history of efforts to adorn the body with colors and scents. Time and place have determined the nature and extent of body alteration deemed normal.

Ancient Egyptian Cosmetics. Thousands of years ago, the ancient Egyptians enhanced their eyes and added color to their cheeks through the application of natural agents. Assorted scented oils were employed by many to soften the skin and to mask the body’s natural odor, but most often such formulations served a religious purpose. Naturally occurring compounds such as red ochre were widely used, as were any moisturizing agents that would protect the skin and the hair from the consequences of prolonged exposure to the sun. Egyptians did not limit their attention to the skin and the hair. They even found fresh breath important, and often chewed tamarisk leaves to keep the mouth free of offensive odors. Perfumes were widely worn, and creators of a given fragrance guarded their compounds with the same diligence as modern multimillion-dollar manufacturers.

Ancient Greek Cosmetics. Evidence suggests that the ancient world almost universally embraced appearance- and odor-altering agents. Emerging global powers such as the Greeks used a sizable volume and variety of cosmetics. Living in a largely mountainous landscape with soil poorly suited to agriculture, ancient Greeks developed intricate trading networks in order to procure the raw materials and foodstuffs not available in their native land. Cosmetics of all sorts were one of the major trade items in the Hellenic world. As with any trading people, exotic products of all types were introduced and sold in Greek communities. Perfumes and makeup from throughout the known world were available in cosmopolitan city-states such as Athens. When Greek civilization was overrun by the Romans, the importance of cosmetics remained strong, and their export throughout the rapidly expanding the Roman Empire continued apace. Even more so than the Greeks, the Romans removed the last vestiges of the spiritual from perfuming rituals, making the practice just another means of making oneself more physically attractive.

By time the Christian era dawned in Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, a more modern conceptualization of cosmetics existed. They were often cost-prohibitive, making them a symbol of status, just as their use was now largely ornamental in nature. Perhaps the only limiting factor in their use was the availability of the raw materials utilized to make cosmetic formulations. Before the widespread availability of synthetic compounds, ancient cosmetics producers needed to keep their finger on the pulse of international trade to always stay one step ahead of demand for a given pigment or fragrance. Should they lose sight of the latest source of good-quality raw materials, they would find themselves quickly without the commodities needed.

Cosmetics in Western Europe. Greek and to a greater extent Roman territorial aggrandizement brought with it not only the spread of political and military traditions, it also brought the expansion of other social and cultural customs, such as the use of cosmetics and perfumes. In the emerging European order, both men and women employed assorted cosmetic agents to make their skin appear whiter and their body smell fresher in a time when bathing was uncommon. People applied makeup to appear younger and more attractive, as well as to create the appearance of physical health. In the wake of assorted disease outbreaks that pockmarked the skin, some attempted to conceal the damage with cosmetic agents.

White skin was especially prized, as it served as an important indicator of social status. The paler the complexion, the more desirable the appearance for much of European history. In the entirety of world history, most people who have ever lived have engaged in some type of outdoor work, typically in agricultural pursuits. Those who toil all day in the fields will inevitable develop tanned skin commensurate with their laborer status. In contrast, a pale appearance indicated a life spent mostly indoors, which historically was a sign of leisure brought about by wealth. Pale skin thus carried with it an important social cue regarding class and lifestyle. To be rich and pale was widely considered more desirable than being poor and sunburned. Cosmetics helped enhance this reality for some, just as it created the illusion of opulence for others.

Over time, however, European tastes changed, and the fascination with pale skin diminished; once deemed the epitome of beauty, pasty white skin came to be regarded as synonymous with sickness and disease. Taking its place was a desire for rosy cheeks and a healthy glow that was imparted through the use of cosmetics. Items such as lipstick and rouge first appeared in France during the 1700s before briefly gaining popularity in the rest of the continent.

As was common in Europe, intense national rivalries prompted equally strong prejudices against other nations. French makeup, which was once the rage in England, fell into disfavor. Queen Victoria in the 1800s belittled the use of makeup, considering it improper and not suitable for aristocratic women. Lipstick and rouge were temporarily shelved in exchange for a more modest cosmetic appearance.

Regardless of the desired result, whether French opulence and sensuality or English austerity and restraint, the cosmetic formulations in wide use contained an array of potentially life-threatening substances. In an age where the link between certain chemicals and health were not well understood, toxic substances such as mercury and lead were commonly employed in cosmetic creations.

Industrialization Modernizes Cosmetics.Industrialization changed everything about the European landscape, including cosmetics. The transportation and printing revolutions that emerged with industry helped create markets for cosmetic manufacturers and advertising firms that attempted to sell the women of the world an image of beauty that only makeup could create. Aside from creating modern, global economies, industrialization spawned the emergence of societies founded on mass production and mass consumption of goods. Industrial capitalism in places like the United States and Europe created a consumer culture in which advertising firms promoted Western ideals of beauty. In an effort to achieve the norms defined by the producers of commodities such as cosmetics, twentieth-century women—and, to a lesser extent, men—spent much of their disposable income on cosmetic items to alter their natural appearances. Selling an idealized sense of beauty proved to be a competitive business, with new products continually appearing on the market.

Cosmetics Today. The major cosmetics firms in existence today emerged at the start of the twentieth century. As the health risks associated with certain staple ingredients used to produce cosmetics became widely understood, it was imperative for manufacturers to hire skilled chemists to look for newer compounds capable of safely producing the results yielded by more toxic substances. Mass production also required careful scientific scrutiny of the formulation of cosmetics to ensure that formulas remained consistent and that they could survive travel across great distances, sometimes under less than optimum conditions. Cosmetic chemists who are employed by the world’s major makeup and fragrance firms continue to do what their less scientifically trained predecessors have done for centuries: They are still seeking out new compounds and designing new products to make people look younger and healthier.

Social Context and Future Prospects

Opponents of the cosmetics industry come from a variety of ideological angles. Some find the youth-oriented marketing of cosmetics firms unnecessarily demeaning to women. These opponents argue that advertisements depicting underweight models with dense makeup application—often digitally altered—are misleading and send a negative message to young women about beauty standards. A less obvious but equally troubling notion has emerged in the second half of the twentieth century, positing that the beauty industry is meant to keep women subservient to men. Since the pioneering efforts of activists such as Betty Friedan, some feminist scholars argued for women to turn away from the corporate (and sometimes male-generated) images of female beauty to embrace a natural and unadorned appearance. However, the cosmetics industry remains a potent international economic force.

Questions of body image are often linked to charges that the cosmetics industry traffics in inherently dangerous products. It is certainly hard to deny that since people first began utilizing cosmetics, there have been a long series of unfortunate and often preventable health risks resulting from their use. Whether a chemical causes cancer or just a rash, the responsibility for poor and limited testing rests with the beauty industry. On some occasions the desire to rush a product to market has eclipsed the careful experimentation and research necessary to ensure the safety of the product before it is released to the general public. Critics of the industry have asserted that many chemicals currently approved for cosmetics usage by the Food and Drug Administration are potential carcinogens when used over long periods. Some evidence suggests that the use of certain antiperspirants, for example, increases the risk of breast cancer.

Although some want even more testing to take place in the industry, others question the testing methods employed by the world’s large firms. Animal rights activists have aggressively attacked the research and development tactics of many cosmetics companies for their use of animal testing in new products.

Bibliography

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Dayan, Nava, Lambros Kromidas, and Gaurav Kale. Formulating, Packaging, and Marketing of Natural Cosmetic Products. Hoboken: Wiley, 2011.

Downing, Sarah Jane. Beauty and Cosmetics, 1550–1950. Oxford: Shire, 2012.

Jones, Oliver, and Ben Selinger. "The Chemistry of Cosmetics." Australian Academy of Science, www.science.org.au/curious/people-medicine/chemistry-cosmetics. Accessed 28 Sep. 2023.

Pointer, Sally. The Artifice of Beauty: A History and Practical Guide to Perfumes and Cosmetics. Stroud: Sutton, 2005.

About the Author

Keith M. Finley, PhD, is instructor of history and assistant director of the Center for Southeast Louisiana Studies at Southeastern Louisiana University. He has written extensively on twentieth-century American politics, society, and ecology, including the 2010 D. B. Hardeman Prize–winning Delaying the Dream: Southern Senators and the Fight Against Civil Rights, 1938–1965. Finley has also cowritten two award-winning documentary films on coastal erosion and environmental degradation in south Louisiana.