Peace Studies

This article examines university-based peace studies programs and their evolution. The influence of peace movements and activism during the 1900s on the definition of peace, peace organizations, and peace studies programs are reviewed and a brief history of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF) is provided. The role of peace research in determining how to maintain a lasting peace is reviewed as is the need to move beyond research and into peace practices in order to achieve peace. Several examples of peace studies programs are presented including the United Nations Peace University in Costa Rica.

Keywords: Arms Traders; Conflict Resolution; Environmental Sustainability; League of Nations; Militarization; Military-industrial Complex; Peace Education; Peace Research; Peace Studies; United Nations

Overview

War and armed conflicts, whether global or regional, cause damage to societies, communities, individuals, and ecologies. Even though it is clear that militarization in general has become the most destructive human activity on the world's ecological systems (Gould, 2007) the tendency towards war seems to always override movements toward peace (Opotow et al., 2005).

In the 20th century the nature of war and weapons evolved to the point where humans had the ability to destroy every person and probably most other living creatures on the planet (Mason, 2002). The 20th century also brought the rise of the military-industrial complex that is economically, politically, and socially intertwined with modern life in industrial nations, making the business of war one of the primary businesses of many economies (Hartung, 2001; Fitzgerald, 2004).

As the power and organization of the former Soviet Union declined in the 1990s, there was renewed hope for peace. However, as we enter the new millennium many nation states, religious zealots, and separatist factions view war and violence as a legitimate means of achieving their goals (Cook-Huffman, 2002). Internal struggles for power, or civil wars, have become almost commonplace in many parts of the world (Brandt et al., 2008). After the terrorists attacks of 2001 a new threat was labeled and recognized and the global war against terrorism began. The weapons manufacturers of the military-industrial complex and the arms traders on the fringe of this global complex are ready and willing to provide all sides with the destructive capabilities they desire (Laurance et al., 2005; Hartung, 2008; Stohl & Tuttle, 2008).

Peace studies, an academic discipline encompassing the study and resolution of conflict emerged as World War II was ending (Steinberg, 2007). Peace studies and peace education gained considerable momentum during the cold war period as the former Soviet Union and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) faced off on a daily basis (Johnson & Johnson, 2005). The goal of peace studies is to establish theories that can be used to help create peace. Peace studies are often centered in critical analysis and applied social sciences, both of which are influenced by the cultural background of the researcher (Baumann, 2008). Peace education as a discipline is inherently diverse and often a viewed as a controversial area of education. Peace education is designed to facilitate conflict resolution and the reduction of war activities (Brown & Morgan, 2008; Evangelista, 2007). Issues faced during post-war reconstruction are also addressed by some peace studies programs (Chantrill & Spence, 2002).

In North America, numerous universities have established some type of peace studies program. Many of these programs are built on interdisciplinary perspectives. Peace studies programs established right after the end of World War II were relatively apolitical and nonthreatening. However, as the United States entered the Vietnam War many peace studies programs took on a more radical nature opposing the war (London, 1988).

In addition to encountering some political opposition, many peace studies programs have also encountered intellectual criticism and some observers believe that too many programs have been established without solid theoretical foundations or research directions (Johnson & Johnson, 2005). On the other hand, the relative young age of many peace programs may explain some of the inconsistency in structure and focus, because most courses are designed and taught based on the expertise of participating faculty members (Fahey, 2002). Peace remains a very broad area of study and as programs evolve there have been subfields established such as human rights, disarmament, treaty development, and peacekeeping operations (Brock-Utne, 2000). In addition, conducting research about peace does not create peace without the research being translated into meaningful and actionable education for those that desire peace (Galtung, 1997).

Examples of Peace Studies Programs

Peace studies programs are offered at the bachelors, masters, and certificate levels. Also, some universities offer doctoral programs that involve components of peace studies. One of the key components of peace studies programs is experiential learning which is frequently achieved through internship or fieldwork. Program content and emphasis are very dependent on the philosophy of the school offering the programs.

The University for Peace (UPEACE) was established in 1980 when the General Assembly of the United Nations (UN) passed Resolution 35/55. The mission of UPEACE was to establish education, training and research on peace-related topics. UPEACE has its headquarters in Costa Rica and is developing mission activities in Asia and the Pacific, Central Asia, Africa and Latin America. Education activities are accomplished through a series of short courses and conferences and graduate programs lead by international faculty (http://www.upeace.org).

In the United States the oldest peace studies programs, Manchester College's Peace Studies Institute and Program in Conflict Resolution, was founded in 1948 as the first undergraduate peace studies program. Concentrations are available in interpersonal/intergroup conflict, religious and philosophical studies, and international and global studies. Several courses are offered on peace, war, and conflict resolution ("Manchester College…," 2010).

The University of North Texas offers an interdisciplinary Peace Studies Program that focuses on why violence occurs with conflict resolution through nonviolent structural mechanisms. Courses offered cover a wide range of topics including terrorism, genocide, government sponsored killings, and religious inequality (http://www.peace.unt.edu).

The Peace Studies Program at Loyola University in Chicago, Illinois offers a wide range of course from different disciplines in three major areas: International Conflict and Peacemaking, Societal Violence and Conflict Resolution, and Environmental Violence and Ecological Concerns. Courses cover war and peace, genocide, Arab-Israeli conflict, the Vietnam War, violence, gender, race, propaganda, human impact on the environment, and global environmental politics (http://www.luc.edu/peace/index.shtml).

Applications

Developing a Peace Research & Advocacy Infrastructure

The institutional structure of peace research was fairly well established before the academic discipline became established after World War II. Behind most academic disciplines there is a research infrastructure that supports the development of theory and empirical research to test theories and provide a basis of action in the application of the discipline. The ultimate goal of peace research is to develop means and methods for establishing and maintaining peace around the world (Fuller, 1992). Peace research gained independence and legitimacy after the end of World War II (Chatfield, 2007). As the field of peace research expanded, so did the number of professional journals that focused on peace research or provided peace research wider distribution (Rogers & Ramsbotham, 1999).

Advocacy Efforts for Peace

The emergence of the organized peace movement in various countries of the world has certainly helped foster an interest in peace and provided a foundation for peace advocacy (Chatfield, 1995). The peace movement in the United States has historically had a very strong social justice and reform orientation (Meerse, 1998). This may be attributable to the involvement of African American women in various peace organizations in their early days of development (Blackwell-Johnson, 1998). The Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF) was founded in 1915, less than one year after the start of World War I ("Women's International," 1996). Between World War I and World War II the WILPF, and the United States section The Women's Peace Party in America was active in lobbying for total disarmament and the creation of a global organization to support international cooperation (Rainbolt, 1977). African American Women were allowed to join the WILPF shortly after it was founded and they had a profound influence on establishing the organization's definition of peace (Blackwell-Johnson, 1998).

Two leaders of the WILPF, Jane Addams and Emily Greene Balch, won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931 and 1946, respectively (Alonso, 1995). These women, like the other members of the WILPF, helped to develop global networks of peace organizations and to take positions on issues that were fundamental to peace. The right to read, for example, was supported as a basic factor in the achievement and perpetuation of peace at the WILPF convention in 1953 (Brown & Fee, 2004). Currently the WILPF has affiliates all over the world ("Women's International," 1996).

The WILPF supports the United Nations and maintains a consultative relationship with United Nations agencies including the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). The WILPF is also involved in promoting human rights and focuses special attention on women's rights ("Women's International," 1996).

In August 1995, a Peace Train sponsored by WILPF left Helsinki, Finland, with women passengers from numerous countries. The train departed the day after the WILPF international conference closed in Helsinki to travel to the United Nation's World Conference on Women being held in Beijing, China. The international group of women made stops in St. Petersburg, Kiev and Odessa, Bucharest, Sofia, Istanbul, Alma Ata, and Urumchi ("WILPF Peace Train," 1995).

Other peace activist organizations that have existed in the United States include the Woman's Peace Party (WPP) of which the New York City branch was particularly active (Alonso, 1996). The Woman's Christian Temperance Union, based in the United States was also involved in transnational peace activities. In 2002, CODEPINK was established to organize efforts to oppose the war in Iraq (Deitch, 2008).

The Growth of International Organizations for Peace

The League of Nations was formed as a result of World War I and remained in existence until 1946. In the United States, Woodrow Wilson advocated that the country participate in and support the League of Nations. The United States senate ultimately rejected his proposals and the League became a predominately European organization in the 1920s (Gorman, 2005). The meetings and efforts of the League of Nations were most often dominated by various countries in Europe attempting to protect their own interest (Van Alstein, 2007). Without the United States as a member to balance interests and to provide an endorsement of legitimacy, the European states continued their infighting while several of them worked to rebuild their military forces in preparation for World War II (O'Connell & O'Connell, 2007). Although The League of Nations was not successful in all of its goals, it did set the foundation for the development of the United Nations.

The international relationships that helped to officially launch the United Nations (UN) in 1945 were forming during World War II (Plesch, 2008). After two major wars during the 20th century the UN was formed with the basic goal of "save succeeding generations from the scourge of war" ("Preamble," 1945) and is subsequently involved in numerous peace building and peacekeeping activities.

Member states of the UN are represented in the General Assembly which is designed as a parliamentary system (Langmore, 2009). About 190 countries are UN members (Weiss et al., 2009). The UN is comprised of numerous sub-organizations that work in the areas of health, education, conflict resolution, and telecommunications as well as numerous other areas that contribute to the quality of life and social order around the world.

Peace Institutes

The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (CEIP), for example, was very active just after World War I in working to prevent future wars. The CEIP was founded in 1910 by Andrew Carnegie which provided a substantial endowment to support research and advocacy (Winn, 2006).

The Peace Research Institute (PRIO), founded in 1959, is a subsection of the Institute for Social Research located in Oslo, Norway. The PRIO supports research projects and conferences as well as working to build relationships with other peace research organizations around the world ("Norway," 1965).

The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), established in 1966, focuses much of its efforts on recording and analyzing activities in the trade of arms and military spending around the world (Gearon, 2006).

The United States Institute of Peace (USIP) was established in 1986 by the United States Congress. The USIP was established as an independent yet government funded nonprofit organization. The mission of USIP is to provide peace and conflict-resolution research, education and training to people in governments, nonprofit organizations, and private companies (DeVolpi & Wernette, 1985).

Viewpoints

Peace studies education programs have evolved considerably since they were established after World War II and have changed even more since they grew in popularity after the Vietnam War (Steinberg, 2007). There are many factors that influence the direction that peace studies have taken. Just as African American women helped to expand the definition of peace in the early 1900s (Blackwell-Johnson, 1998) to include equal rights and freedom, new participants in the peace movement are influencing the present day definition of peace.

One of the biggest influences is new environmentalists, who contend that peace is not sustainable unless there is appropriate environmental management which in turn contributes to long-term economic stability. Such stability is a positive factor in maintaining regional (and potentially global) peace. It has also been noted that many participants of the anti-war movement during the Vietnam War turned their attention to the environmental movement after that war was over. This helped to set the stage socially for the convergence of environmental issues and peace issues (Matthew & Gaulin, 2002).

The content and direction of peace studies programs was once again influenced during and after the collapse of the former Soviet Union. That event opened the way to look at peace from more directions and to invite interested parties from the newly formed states or emancipated countries to more actively participate in peace studies. The massive political and economic change brought the collapse of the Soviet Union also gave peace theorists and practitioners an opportunity to move into action and provide assistance to the states in establishing democratic governments, expanding education, and developing commercial links between local economies and those in Europe, Asia, and the Americas (Shinn, 2006). The current viewpoint of peace also examines the elements of peace from a cultural perspective and how culture interacts with economics (de Rivera, 2005).

One of the most prominent examples of a peace studies program that encompasses the new and expanded viewpoints of peace is that of the UN Peace University in Costa Rica. Its master's programs reflect the philosophy and viewpoints of the university towards what is necessary for peace to be achieved and sustained, and human rights issues are a cornerstone of the programs. The programs cover environmental security, natural resources, dispute settlement, and sustainable economic development (http://www.upeace.org).

The UN Peace University also delivers several short courses that focus on issues within a specific political or geographical context. This approach is a step toward making peace studies more actionable and provides practitioners with current situation-specific training that can be applied to immediate issues in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Topics covered include the environment, entrepreneurship, terrorism, conflict transformation, insurgency, and food security. Short courses are delivered at locations around the world.

The UN Peace University also has a Centre for Executive Education which provides seminars and workshops for executives and practitioners from nonprofit and nongovernment organizations, private business, and educational institutions. Seminars have covered sustainable business, corporate social responsibility, arms control, and peace education.

The UN Peace University not only provides peace education, it also helps build a network of practitioners, leaders, and business executives around the world that share a philosophy about peace and who participate in peace building actions. Over 900 people have graduated from the UN Peace University with master's degrees and hundreds of others annually participate in seminars and workshops.

Conclusion

Over the last two centuries, war has become more prevalent than peace. There have been, however, many people that have worked for peace during that time and many of those have risked their social status, jobs, and even their lives to be activists in the peace movement (Schwebel, 2005). The peace movements of the late 1800s and into the 1900s were led by and driven by women (Katzel, 2001). During the Vietnam War, many students became involved as peace activists and in current times there are even people that are members of the military that consider themselves peace activists (Wolpin, 1998).

As World War II ended peace activism was institutionalized by the creation of the UN, which is a global organization of countries that has a mission and a goal of peace. At the same time it became apparent that peace studies and peace research can help provide foundations for peace and several peace education programs were established along with research centers and institutes in several countries.

However, the absence of war and violence is only a limited form of peace. Many observers and social activists believe that to achieve actual and lasting peace among peoples, justice for all peoples must also be achieved (Fogarty, 1992; Berlowitz, 2002; Lawler, 2002). As a result, the definition of peace was expanded to encompass human rights, economic stability, and environmental sustainability. Peace studies programs evolved to keep up with the emerging perspectives about peace. In the future, how peace studies will evolve largely depends how peace — and war — will be defined (Crews, 2002; McCarthy, 2005).

Terms & Concepts

Arms Traders: Individuals or companies that provide arms and military equipment to nations, factions, tribes, groups, or individuals to help them develop military capabilities.

Militarization: The mobilization of people, economic and natural resources, and political structures into a military-industrial complex designed to support armed conflict and wars.

Military-industrial Complex: The development of economic and political relationships between military organizations and industrial research and manufacturing companies.

Peace Education: Academic courses or training that teach people about how the condition of peace is influenced by cultural, economic, political, and social conditions as well as how to resolve conflicts and move into and maintain peace status.

Peace Movement: Organized social and political efforts to oppose war and advocate for peace.

Peace Studies: The academic or formalized study of peace and the cultural, economic, political, and social conditions that help maintain peace and avoid armed conflict.

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Ogawa, M. (2007). The "White Ribbon League of Nations" meets Japan: The trans-Pacific activism of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, 1906-1930. Diplomatic History, 31, 21-50. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=23407391&site=ehost-live

Opotow, S., Gerson, J., & Woodside, S. (2005). From moral exclusion to moral inclusion: Theory for teaching peace. Theory Into Practice, 44, 303-318. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=18649148&site=ehost-live

Peace Studies. (2010). Peace Studies Program, Loyola University. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from Loyola University. http://www.luc.edu/peace/index.shtml

Peace Studies Program at the University of North Texas. (2010). Retrieved January 6, 2010 from University of North Texas. http://www.peace.unt.edu/

Plesch, D. (2008). How the United Nations beat Hitler and prepared the peace. Global Society: Journal of Interdisciplinary International Relations, 22, 137-158. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=28056007&site=ehost-live

Rainbolt, R. (1977). Women and war in the United States: The case of Dorothy Detzer, National Secretary Women's International League for Peace and Freedom. Peace & Change, 4, 18. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=6178676&site=ehost-live

Rosen, Y., & Salomon, G. (2011). Durability of peace education effects in the shadow of conflict. Social Psychology Of Education, 14, 135-147. doi:10.1007/s11218-010-9134-y Retrieved October 29, 2013 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text:http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=57639925&site=ehost-live

Preamble. (1945). Charter of the United Nations. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=21212379&site=ehost-live

Rogers, P., & Ramsbotham, O. (1999). Then and now: Peace research--past and future. Political Studies, 47, 740. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=3595532&site=ehost-live

Sanguma, W. D. (2013). The Power of Identity in Local Conflict. Peace Review, 25, 203-211. doi:10.1080/10402659.2013.785323 Retrieved October 30, 2013 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text:http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=87821028&site=ehost-live

Schwebel, M. (2005). Peace activism and courage. Peace & Conflict, 11, 397-408. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=18977553&site=ehost-live

Shinn, S. (2006). The dimensions of peace. (Cover story). BizEd, 5, 24-31. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=20804271&site=ehost-live

Skelly, J. (2002). A Constructivist approach to peace studies. Peace Review, 14, 57-60. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=6311471&site=ehost-live

Snider, C. (2007). Planning for peace: Virginia Gildersleeve at the United Nations Conference on International Organization. Peace & Change, 32, 168-185. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=24421695&site=ehost-live

Steinberg, G. (2007). Postcolonial Theory and the ideology of Peace Studies. Israel Affairs, 13, 786-796. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=26705950&site=ehost-live

Stohl, R., & Tuttle, D. (2008). The small arms trade in Latin America. (Cover story). NACLA Report on the Americas, 41, 14-20. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=30079790&site=ehost-live

Swank, E., & Fahs, B. (2011). Students for Peace: Contextual and Framing Motivations of Antiwar Activism. Journal Of Sociology & Social Welfare, 38, 111-136. Retrieved October 30, 2013 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text:http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=62849555&site=ehost-live

True, M. (2005). 35 years of university peace studies bear fruit. National Catholic Reporter, 42, 14a. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=18642457&site=ehost-live

University for Peace. (2010). The United Nations University for Peace. Retrieved on January 11, 2010. http://www.upeace.org/

Van Alstein, M. (2007). "No more war?" Belgian reception of the League of Nations and arbitration after the First World War. Diplomacy & Statecraft, 18, 133-153. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=24154146&site=ehost-live

Weiss, T., Carayannis, T., & Jolly, R. (2009). The "Third" United Nations. Global Governance, 15, 123-146. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=37252831&site=ehost-live

WILPF Peace Train commemorates 80th anniversary. (1995). Women's International Network News, 21, 30. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9512042557&site=ehost-live

Winn, J. (2006). Nicholas Murray Butler, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, and the search for reconciliation in Europe, 1919-1933. Peace & Change, 31, 555-584. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=21980290&site=ehost-live

Wolpin, M. (1998). Military professionals and the peace movement. Peace Review, 10, 99. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=459836&site=ehost-live

Women's International League for Peace and Freedom: A brief history. (1996). Women's International Network News, 22, 78. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9612126043&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Aumann, R. (2006). War and peace. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103, 17075-17078. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=23366237&site=ehost-live

Bearce, D. (2003). Grasping the commercial institutional peace. International Studies Quarterly, 47, 347-370. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=10316345&site=ehost-live

Buhler, U. (2002). Reflections on the position(s) of peace studies. Peace Review, 14, 27-31. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=6311475&site=ehost-live

Burnley, J. (2003). From awareness to action: Social studies and peace education. Education Links, 66/67, 21-24. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=11454091&site=ehost-live

Conca, K. (1994). In the name of sustainability. Peace & Change, 19, 91. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9608010320&site=ehost-live

Confortini, C. (2006). Galtung, violence, and gender: The case for a peace studies/feminism alliance. Peace & Change, 31, 333-367. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=21123805&site=ehost-live

Cooper, R. (2014). Peace and Conflict Studies. Peace Review, 26, 514-516. Retrieved December 15, 2014, from EBSCO Online Database, SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=99928650

Folk, J. (1978). Peace education-peace studies programs: Towards an integrated approach. Peace & Change, 5, 56. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=6179016&site=ehost-live

Gat, A. (2009). So why do people fight? Evolutionary theory and the causes of war. European Journal of International Relations, 15, 571-599. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=45244196&site=ehost-live

Gleditsch, N., Leine, O., Holm, H., Hoivik, T., Klausen, A., Rudeng, E., & Wiberg, H. (1980). Johan Galtung: A Bibliography of His Scholarly & Popular Writings 1951-1980. Radhusgata: International Peace Research Institute (Prio).

Harris, I. (1990). Principles of peace pedagogy. Peace & Change, 15, 254. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9610090271&site=ehost-live

Harris, I. (2009). A select bibliography for peace education. Peace & Change, 34, 571-576. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=44297086&site=ehost-live

Hauss, C. (1990). The end of the cold war? Peace & Change, 15, 223. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9610090269&site=ehost-live

Kalmakoff, S., & Manley-Casimir, M. (1990). Peace education in the schools. Peace & Change, 15, 272. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9610090272&site=ehost-live

Kauzlarich, D. (2007). Seeing war as criminal: Peace activist views and critical criminology. Contemporary Justice Review, 10, 67-85. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rst&AN=24409647&site=ehost-live

LeBlanc, S. (2009). War and human nature. American Interest, 4, 29-38. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=43027521&site=ehost-live

Levine, M., & Cox, D. (2005). Teaching war and violence to the like-minded. Peace Review, 17(2/3), 247-259. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=19374308&site=ehost-live

Mason, G. (1995). Some implications of postmodernism for the field of peace studies. Peace & Change, 20, 120. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9505091616&site=ehost-live

Mason, A. (2000). Peace education and the peaceful educator. Primary Educator, 6, 3. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=3401821&site=ehost-live

Mertus, J., & Hallward, M. (2005). The Human rights dimensions of war in Iraq: Framework for peace studies. Peace & Change, 30, 85-119. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=16201605&site=ehost-live

Moerk, E., & Pincus, F. (2000). How to make wars acceptable. Peace & Change, 25, 1.

Page, J. (2004). Peace education: Exploring some philosophical foundations. International Review of Education, 50, 3-15. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=12456131&site=ehost-live

Ramler, S. (2000). Schools for peace in the Middle East. Independent School, 60, 80. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=4488683&site=ehost-live

Ryan, S. (2002). Teaching peace and conflict studies in a divided society. Peace Review, 14, 21-26. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=6311476&site=ehost-live

Smith, D. (2007). A map of peace and conflict studies in U.S. undergraduate colleges and universities. Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 25, 145-151. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=27296263&site=ehost-live

Spencer, B. (2006). The problems and possibilities for peace studies. Convergence, 39, 123-132. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=27827334&site=ehost-live

Weigert, K. (1990). Experiential learning and peace education. Peace & Change, 15, 312. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9610090274&site=ehost-live

Wood, B. (2009). Educating for peace through war: Reflections on ten days in a war zone, Lebanon 2006. disClosure, , 33-47. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=43700895&site=ehost-live

Essay by Michael Erbschloe, M.A.

Michael Erbschloe is an information technology consultant, educator, and author. He has taught technology courses and developed technology-related curriculum for several universities and speaks at conferences and industry events around the world. Michael holds a Masters Degree in Sociology from Kent State University. He has authored hundreds of articles and several books on technology.