Chinese Canadians

SIGNIFICANCE: There were close to a million people of Chinese ancestry living in Canada at the beginning of the twenty-first century. Though their struggle has been long and sometimes arduous, Chinese Canadians have come to play an important role in modern Canadian society.

In 1858, when gold was discovered in the lower Fraser River region of British Columbia, thousands of miners—including a few hundred Chinese—rushed in from California. Soon, many Chinese migrated from China to join these gold seekers, and by the summer of 1861, nearly 4,000 Chinese miners were working in the area. These Chinese were seasonal workers who returned to either California or China during the winter after mining in the spring.

After the failure of one of the largest banks in the region in 1864, an economic recession hit the West Coast. To reduce government expenses, British Columbia was combined with another British colony, Vancouver Island, in 1866. This unification caused further unemployment, and the Chinese were blamed for the lack of jobs.

In 1871, the colony of British Columbia became a province of Canada and needed a transcontinental railway to link it with the rest of the country. The construction of the railway led to a second wave of Chinese immigration, and by 1881, 4,350 Chinese were reported to be residents of British Columbia, the largest ethnic minority in the province. However, because of official government discrimination—and daily prejudice, sometimes to the point of physical violence—Chinese individuals lived together for safety and ran businesses such as grocery stores, restaurants, and lodges in small sections of towns.

The discrimination against people of Chinese ancestry was typical of that in all parts of North America at that time. In 1882, the US government passed a law suspending entry of Chinese laborers to the states and issued identity certificates to Chinese immigrants already in the country. Because this law went into effect immediately, Chinese who had lived in the United States but were working on the railway in Canada had no time to return. As a result, many Chinese from the United States were stranded in British Columbia. This led white people in the province to organize anti-Chinese societies and propose further federal restrictions on Chinese immigrants (such as forbidding them to work more than eight hours a day).

The federal government in Ottawa, however, was not concerned about Chinese issues. White people in British Columbia claimed that because there were almost no Chinese in Ottawa, the federal government did not understand the social problems of the province and kept lobbying for more restrictions. This struggle, lasting from 1874 to 1883, was called the Fight Ottawa campaign. After Noah Shakespeare, the president of an anti-Chinese organization, was elected to parliament from Victoria in 1887, the House of Commons established a Select Committee to study the “Chinese problem.”

Exclusion: 1885 to World War II

In 1885, a federal head tax of $50 per person was imposed for the annual entry and departure of Chinese over twelve years of age. In 1901, it increased to $100, and only two years later, it became $500. In those days, the average annual income of Chinese workers in Canada was $225. This incredibly high tax was to discourage and restrict Chinese entry into Canada. However, even during this time, many Chinese came to Canada because of economic woes in China.

YearEvent Involving Chinese CanadiansGermane World Event1788Chinese arrive in Canada.1849The first English colonists arrive in British Columbia.1858Gold rush begins near Fraser River. Chinese come to the area from San Francisco and establish a Chinatown on Victoria Island.1882 passes in the United States.1885Chinese Tax Act levies departure and entry tax on Chinese of $50 per person per year.1886The United Colony of British Columbia is established, with the colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia.1886British Columbia enters the Confederation as a province of Canada.1894 occurs.1901Revision of Chinese Tax Act raises entry-departure tax to $100 per person per year.1903Revision of Chinese Tax Act raises entry-departure tax to $500 per person per year.1908The Leminux Agreement between Canada and Japan limits Japanese immigration.1913California prohibits Japanese from owning land.1923The Exclusion Act virtually eliminates Chinese immigration to Canada.1924The Immigration Exclusion Act is passed in the United States, preventing Chinese and Japanese immigration.1941World War II starts.1945World War II ends.1947The Exclusion Act is repealed.1967The Immigration Act is passed, allowing increased immigration from Hong Kong, India, and the Caribbean.1997 by Great Britain.

The Qing government of China signed the Treaty of Nanking with Britain in 1842 after losing the Opium War. Territorial concessions and huge indemnities crippled the Chinese economy, especially when the United States and France also forced the Qing government to sign similar treaties. Moreover, in 1894, China lost the Sino-Japanese War. The resulting enormous taxations caused many Chinese to look for jobs outside the country.

Because of the cost of travel, many male workers left their families behind in China and crossed the ocean by themselves, hoping to make enough money in Canada to send for their families or return to China with lots of money. However, both these hopes were soon shattered. Falling into despair, some hopeless men congregated in the opium dens and houses of prostitution in various Chinatowns, serving to reinforce white stereotypes of the “decadent Chinese.”

The head tax ended in 1923, but that year, the Exclusion Act was passed. This act prohibited all Chinese from coming to Canada (except certain consular officials, students, or merchants). Also, Chinese who had been absent from Canada for more than two years would lose their Canadian residency. Although there were about 45,000 Chinese in Canada during the exclusion period, they never constituted more than 0.5 percent of the total population. However, until World War II, almost 99 percent of Chinese Canadians were concentrated in British Columbia. The Great Depression led to even more restrictions regarding Chinese in the province. Even Canadian-born Chinese had to get visas from the Chinese consulate just to step across the border to Seattle. Canadian-born Chinese could not practice law, open a drugstore, teach in school, or work in the post office, even though they had been educated in Canada, many at universities. The new generation took trains—which, ironically, their parents or grandparents had built—and crossed the Rocky Mountains to settle in places where there was little discrimination, such as Toronto and Montreal.

The Younger Generation, Vietnamese Chinese, and Hong Kong Expatriates

After World War II, multiculturalism became an important issue in Canada. Diversity and ethnic awareness became the commonly expected standard of social behavior. As a result, attitudes toward Chinese individuals have changed rapidly for the better in postwar Canadian society.

Yet, assimilation has often corresponded to a decrease in cultural awareness. For example, attendance at Chinese language schools has been decreasing as Chinese Canadian parents prefer piano or dance lessons to language maintenance. Chinese Canadian cultural participation is often limited to such activities as celebrating the Chinese New Year Festival or taking Chinese painting classes.

Because of increasing job opportunities, members of the younger generation have left the Chinatowns and live in all parts of the cities. As a result, Chinatowns have largely become the residences of low-income or older single men and the sites of ethnic markets and restaurants. During the weekend, many tourists come to purchase Asian products and foods.

The post-World War II Chinese community in Canada became more diverse in the last quarter of the twentieth century. Several thousand Chinese Vietnamese individuals landed in Canada after North Vietnam took control of South Vietnam in 1975. These new Chinese Canadians are gradually expanding their business influence in Chinatowns. In addition, Hong Kong Chinese are becoming the largest minority in Canada. From 1983 to 1993, almost 170,000 Hong Kong Chinese came to Canada. After about a hundred years of English occupation, in 1994, Britain agreed to return Hong Kong to China in 1997. In the year that the treaty was signed, 41,524 Hong Kong Chinese landed in Canada (18 percent of the total immigrants that year). As members of the British Commonwealth, Hong Kong residents could migrate to Canada relatively easily, especially as the Canadian government gave special consideration to those who were financially secure or could bring in new business.

The Present and Future Generation

Established Chinese Canadians and recently immigrated Chinese individuals are a significant part of modern-day Canada’s diverse and multicultural population. Many have been recognized nationally and locally for their achievements and contributions. Harvey Lowe (1918-2009), also known as the boy-wonder world yo-yo champion, broadcast the first Chinese Canadian radio program, The Call of China, in 1951, which aired for fourteen years on CJOR Radio in Vancouver. Novelist Paul Yee (b. 1956) introduced the history of Chinese Canadians to the world through novels, historical academic works, and works for young people. His works include Saltwater City: An Illustrated History of the Chinese in Vancouver (1988), Chinatown (2005), and A Superior Man (2015). Fred Wah (b. 1939) is a well-known poet, and Thomas Ming Swi Chang (b. 1933) is one of the best-known biotechnologists worldwide, especially for his research on artificial cells and blood. Alexina Louie (b. 1949) is a world-famous Chinese Canadian musician. Her works include The Scarlet Princess (2002), Songs of Paradise (1984), and Mulroney: The Opera (2011). In 1986, she was named Composer of the Year by the Canadian Music Council, and in 2019, Canada’s Council for the Arts awarded her the Molson Prize.

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