Military and racial/ethnic relations

SIGNIFICANCE: Racial and ethnic relations in the U.S. military became the center of attention with the integration of the armed forces in 1948 and the shift to an all-volunteer service in 1973. Sociological, ethical, and political concerns revolve around recruitment, promotion, and official military policy regarding race.

Despite the lack of positive notoriety, American minority groups, including immigrants, have served with distinction in the United States military since the American Revolutionary War. Nonetheless, before the Civil War (1861-1865), the U.S. military tradition was one of militia-based service and sanctioned prejudice. The Civil War saw the first real attempt to incorporate Blacks into the service, strangely enough, on both sides of that conflict. However, they were largely used in noncombat roles, especially in the South. The employment of former enslaved people was consequential toward the Union’s victory, but was hotly debated and carefully segregated. This segregation continued well into the twentieth century through two world wars.

During World War I, African American units saw heavy combat. Corporal Frddie Stowers, would post-humously be awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor. The New York 369th Infantry Regiment, nicknamed the Harlem Hellfighters, fought alongside French forces. 171 members of this unit would be awarded the French Criox de Guerre.

During World War II, many members of minority groups served with valor, most in segregated units. Various segregated Black units and individual African American personnel such as Pearl Harbor hero Dorrie Miller, had distinguished themselves in battle. In addition, the US Army 442nd Regimental Combat Team, formed primarily of Japanese Americans, become the most decorated unit for its size in U.S. Army history. Over 4,000 unit members were awarded the Purple Heart for sustaining wounds in battle. In addition, twenty-one Congressional Medals of Honor, the US military's highest honor, were bestowed on unit members. Company E, of the U.S. Army 2nd Battalion, 36th Infantry Division, was formed almost exclusively from Mexican Americans from Texas. Its highly decorated soldiers helped to liberate Rome in 1944.

Because of the valor shown by segregated units, the years immediately after World War II saw the first impetus for change. A debate convened on the Military desegregation of the armed forces. President Harry S Truman initiated new policies on race relations in the military, and the services were mostly integrated by the start of the Korean War in 1950. The U.S. Navy, previously the most conservative branch, actually took the early lead in promoting equality within the ranks. Gradually, African Americans began to gain some ground, a few even rising to officer status. During the Vietnam War (1957-1975), a multitude of problems arose, many of which concerned African American troops. 

From Conscription to the All-Volunteer Force

The United States’ modern wars, from the Civil War to the Vietnam War, were largely fought by conscripts or draftees. In the two world wars, conscription and segregation went hand in hand. The wars in Korea and Vietnam, especially the latter, were the United States’ first experience with draftees fighting in an integrated service. Although conscription was designed to promote equitable social and ethnic representation in the services, it was often alleged that Blacks were overly represented and burdened with the risks of combat during the Vietnam War. Indeed, the poor and minorities appear to have suffered from the inequities of the draft, in large part because middle-class and more affluent people could more easily be excused from service or obtain deferments. This discrepancy was also caused by the war’s increasing unpopularity. As the combat effectiveness of conscripts declined in the later years of the Vietnam War, the debate ensued as to the desirability of having an all-volunteer force (AVF).  

Initially, opposition to ending the draft arose from many quarters. This opposition was based on notions that a large, all-volunteer force would be mercenary, ineffective, socially unrepresentative, and costly. Nevertheless, in 1970, a presidential task force known as the Gates Commission forwarded recommendations that an AVF was possible if military pay and benefits were raised to meet civilian standards. By 1973, the AVF was in place as the last U.S. troops left Vietnam. This AVF seemed to function well at first, but problems arose that led to a decline in quality of personnel for the next decade. The 1980s, however, saw two important changes occur: the onset of serious effort and spending to upgrade the AVF and the implementation of solid racial policies in the U.S. military. 

The AVF and Race Relations

The 1980s saw a marked improvement in the overall effectiveness of the AVF due to the introduction of higher pay, better benefits, and more effective advertising. Enlistment eligibility requirements were raised considerably during this time. The number of Blacks enlisting in the service continued to rise, reaching 22 percent in 1989. The greatest increase in Black recruits occurred in the U.S. Navy, where enlistment doubled. Because of the higher eligibility standards, the educational and aptitude levels of all recruits, including minorities, continued to rise into the 1990’s. With this higher-quality recruit came a concerted effort at improving race relations and the advancement prospects of minorities in the services. In some respects, an outward attempt was made to make the AVF not only combat effective but also an ideal model in the areas of cost-efficiency, team effort, and race relations. Efforts to improve recruits’ sensitivity to race began as early as 1973, but the U.S. military consistently added policies throughout the years that have achieved a remarkable level of color-blind professionalism. Racial incidents underwent a steady decline and have been dealt with sternly. The military maintains a complex system of grievance procedures and racial protocol. Indeed, the U.S. military’s record on race is, by most accounts, far better than its record on gender and other issues. 

The issue of race and social representation was also a factor in both vocational placement and promotion through the ranks. For active-duty personnel, there appeared to be equal representation in combat roles, while Blacks occupied larger numbers of clerical, administrative, and logistical positions. A few experts have suggested capping minority recruitment in some areas, although this would revive the issue of discrimination. The U.S. military boasts the largest percentage of minorities in command roles in its entire history, and an African American officer, General Colin Powell, served as chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff during the critical period of the Persian Gulf War. When that conflict erupted in early 1991, it was seen as a major test of the effectiveness of the AVF. Powell later served as U.S. Secretary of State between 2001 and 2005. Smart bombs and other high-tech weaponry may have garnered the attention of most viewers, but professional military men were quick to point out the readiness and steady professionalism of the men and women of the all-volunteer force that handily won the Gulf War. 

In 2021, retired Army General Lloyd Austin became the first African American to be named as Secretary of Defense, serving in the Presidential administration of Joe Biden (2021-2025). In 2023, US Air Force General Charles Q. Brown Jr. became the second African American to serve as the Chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff.

Bibliography

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