Film theory

Film theory studies different elements that make up movies. It can cover a broad range of topics, including film's place as an art form, how creators express themselves through their movies, and how films influence audiences. Film theory has been studied and practiced since the late nineteenth century, almost immediately after the creation of the first films, and it has evolved dramatically over time.

In its earliest forms, film theory was focused on comparing film to other types of art, such as literature, painting, and illustration. As the twentieth century continued, film theorists focused on contrasting movies against reality. In the mid-twentieth century, the focus shifted, with more discussion on the aspects of reality that movies could capture; scholars argued that this was the heart of filmmaking. Later in the twentieth century, several subgroups of film theory emerged that focused on more specific topics, such as genre, gender, and the nature of art with multiple creators.

Background

Film theory has followed the evolution of film itself. The earliest films were black-and-white and had no audible dialogue or sound effects. The only music was provided by accompanying instrumentalists, and certain pieces of dialogue were conveyed with text displayed on-screen. Film was a new form of media, so the first film theorists were primarily focused on identifying just what elements were necessary for something to be considered a movie, and what film could contribute as an art form.

Once movies developed the capacity to reproduce sound, filmmakers, audiences, and theorists needed to consider how this would affect the medium. The transition was not immediate, and silent films coexisted with movies that had sound for several years. This led to conflict, with some suggesting that film was intended to be a purely visual medium and that adding sound took away some of the power of the visuals. Proponents of the new format said it was just a new element to consider that allowed movies to simulate reality even more accurately.

In the second half of the twentieth century, film theory began placing more emphasis on how movies interacted with culture, society, and the psychology of filmmakers and audiences. Film theorists also had to reconsider the environment in which people watched films. Until the mid-twentieth century, theaters were the only access most people had to films. Once televisions became popular, people could view movies in their homes. Later, recording and playing devices such as VCRs and VHS tapes allowed people to watch movies whenever they wanted, without needing to stick to a schedule. These inventions completely altered the movie-watching experience, allowing viewers to become very familiar with the same film, but also opening them up to distractions and the quality limitations of the televisions and recording devices of the time. Theorists and academics debated how the way people watched movies could influence how they absorbed the content and messages of the films themselves.

In the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, new forms of media became accessible for watching movies. These included the internet and smartphones. Streaming movie services also added another layer of convenience for viewers. Academics debated the place of movies as art among newer outlets.

Overview

Several specific branches of film theory cropped up over time. Some of the more well-known include auteur theory. Auteur theory focuses on the idea of a director as a film's author. The term auteur is French and dates back to the late nineteenth century. It refers to an author, and is often used to highlight the individual most responsible for something, such as a composer of a song. Since film is a collaborative medium involving actors, screenwriters, cinematographers, and other crew members, identifying a single person as the creator is more difficult than with books or paintings.

The theory argues that a truly artistic director is the one most capable of using filmmaking tools to convey a creative vision, make a statement, or express viewpoints. Film theorist André Bazin and filmmaker Roger Leenhardt were two of the first to bring attention to the theory in academic circles. Director and writer François Truffaut expanded on the theory in the 1950s, arguing that a director is in a unique position to influence film, and that even a poorly made film is worthwhile when directed by a true auteur.

Feminist theory became a very prominent branch of film theory over the course of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Its central focus has been examining how female characters are portrayed in movies and determining different trends across time and genres. It also relates the fictional portrayal of women to the treatment of women in society, arguing that fiction and reality have influenced each other in this respect.

Laura Mulvey was one of the first film theorists to analyze the concept of the male gaze. This concept describes the idea that the overwhelming majority of films are created to relate to a straight male viewer. The term gaze calls attention to the visual nature of film, and it covers the tendency for film cameras to focus and linger on women in sexualized situations. However, it goes beyond that, arguing that most films' story lines revolve around male characters, with female characters that are only important in terms of how they relate to the males.

One way of calling attention to this is the Bechdel test. While there are many small variants, the most common version of this idea contends that in order for a movie to pass the test, it must include at least two female characters exchanging dialogue that does not involve a male character. The test was designed to display the general trend of films that fail it. Film theorists acknowledge that individual films may pass the test while still portraying female characters poorly, or fail while otherwise being a progressive example. Many principles of the test, and feminist film theory overall, have also been modified to analyze the treatment of minorities in film.

Apparatus theory became popular in the 1970s. It focuses on how audiences process movies and how movies relate to their audiences' values. According to the theory, films by nature represent the ideals of the society from which they come. Even if films seem to have no message whatsoever, or display a message that seems to contradict socially acceptable views, the theory holds that this is only showing a different side of society, one that is less obvious at first glance. Apparatus theory contends that because of this connection, films can influence their audiences, even if individuals do not consciously acknowledge these factors while viewing the film.

Bibliography

"About." Bechdel Test Movie List, bechdeltest.com. Accessed 28 Oct. 2017.

Baudry, Jean-Louis. "Ideological Effects of the Cinematographic Apparatus." Film Theory and Criticism, edited by Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen, Oxford UP, 2004, pp. 345–55.

Elsaesser, Thomas, and Malte Hagener. Film Theory: An Introduction through the Senses. Routledge, 2009.

"Film." The Chicago School of Media Theory, lucian.uchicago.edu/blogs/mediatheory/keywords/film/. Accessed 28 Oct. 2017.

Jacobs, Christopher P. "Film Theory and Approaches to Criticism, or, What Did That Movie Mean?" University of North Dakota, www.und.edu/instruct/cjacobs/FilmTheory&Analysis.htm. Accessed 28 Oct. 2017.

Lapsley, Robert, and Michael Westlake. Film Theory: An Introduction. Manchester UP, 2006.

Sampson, Rachael. "Film Theory 101—Laura Mulvey: The Male Gaze Theory." Film Inquiry, 27 Oct. 2015, www.filminquiry.com/film-theory-basics-laura-mulvey-male-gaze-theory/. Accessed 29 Oct. 2017.

Shepherdson, K.J., et al. Film Theory: Critical Concepts in Media and Cultural Studies. Routledge, 2003.