Azerbaijan

The Republic of Azerbaijan is a small Transcaucasian republic on the Caspian Sea, bordered by Armenia, Georgia, Iran, and Russia. Historically, the region has long been at the center of power struggles between stronger neighbors, as well as the Greeks and Romans. In the years leading up to 1991, Azerbaijan was heavily influenced by Russia, before achieving independence that year.

Like other former Soviet republics, Azerbaijan became involved in post-independence conflicts that have slowed serious social and economic reforms. Significant oil reserves give the country great potential for future growth and stability, but the industry will require further development and careful management if it is to benefit a broad section of the population. Government corruption remains a chief concern, and the Azerbaijani government eliminated presidential term limits in 2009 and extended presidential terms from five to seven years in 2016. Although poverty rates have declined and infrastructure has improved, access to education and health care remain inadequate. The country's longstanding tension with neighboring Armenia erupted into open warfare in 2020 and briefly in 2023.

Note: unless otherwise indicated, statistical data in this article is sourced from the CIA World Factbook, as cited in the bibliography.

People and Culture

Population: In the twenty-first century, Azerbaijan’s population has shown a slight growth trend. In 2024 life expectancy at birth was an estimated 73.5 years for men and 78.6 years for women. The country is ranked 81 out of 193 countries and territories on the Human Development Index for 2023, as reported in the United Nations Human Development Report.

Azerbaijan’s population is concentrated in valleys and irrigated lowlands, including the Absheron peninsula, the most densely populated region. Approximately 57.6 percent of the population resides in urban areas, with Baku being the largest city, home to around 2.43 million people (2023 estimates). Sumqayit, also on the Absheron peninsula, and Ganja are the other major urban centers.

The Turkic Azeris (or Azerbaijani) comprise the vast majority of the country's population. Lezghins, an ethnic group concentrated in northeastern Azerbaijan and the southeastern border of the Russian republic of Dagestan, forms the largest minority group, followed by Russians and Talysh. The Russian population decreased after the fall of the Soviet Union.

In 1988, ethnic tensions between Azerbaijan and Armenia over the predominantly Armenian Nagorno-Karabakh region region flared up and ethnic Armenians declared the territory to be an independent country known as the Republic of Artsakh. A ceasefire was declared in 1993; in subsequent decades, the region largely governed itself, despite a lack of international recognition, and Artsakh developed close ties with Armenia despite legally remaining part of Azerbaijan. Casualties from the conflict initially numbered near 20,000 people, and more than 1 million people were made refugees. After decades of tension, including renewed open warfare in 2020, in 2023 Azerbaijan recaptured Nagorno-Karabakh, which led to most Armenians fleeing the region.

Azeri (Azerbaijani), the language of the Azeri population, is spoken by a significant majority of the people in Azerbaijan. An Altaic language, it is related to Turkish and other Central Asian languages. It has made a full conversion from the Cyrillic alphabet and is once again written in a modified Latin alphabet. Minority languages include Russian, which is also widely spoken as a second language.

Although religion was once proscribed by the government, today 97.3 percent of the population is Muslim (2020 estimate). Many Azerbaijanis, however, are not particularly religious. Shia Muslims comprise the largest sect. Russians and Armenians practice their respective forms of Orthodox Christianity, although the country's Armenian population fell significantly after 2023.

Indigenous People: Russians began colonizing the region in the early eighteenth century. Under colonization, native Azerbaijanis suffered for most of the next two hundred years, especially during the Soviet era, when attempts were made to demolish their history and culture and replace it with pro-Russia, Marxist propaganda.

Historically, Azerbaijan also had a longstanding Armenian minority. However, ethnic tensions between Azeris and Armenians flared during the breakup of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and worsened with military conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan over the disputed Nagorno-Karabakh territory. Most of the territory's population, most of whom were Armenians, fled immediately during and shortly after Azerbaijan's military invaded and recaptured the area in 2023. This invasion, along with the months-long blockade Azerbaijan had created around the territory before the invasion, led many Armenians and some international observers to accuse Azerbaijan of ethnic cleansing against the country's Armenian minority.

Education: After independence, Azerbaijan’s educational system was put under considerable strain, with educational materials and teachers becoming scarce, and few funds available to change the structure put in place by the Soviets. However, with this decline the curriculum was revised, making Azeri the language of instruction. Marxist-Leninist ideology was revised out, while religious instruction was once again included. The high literacy rate, a legacy of the Soviet era, stands at 99.8 percent (2023 estimate).

Education is free and compulsory through the ninth grade. At that point, students can choose to attend secondary schools, vocational schools, or professional lyceums which combine a general education with technical training.

Education at the university level is also free to those students who pass the National Entrance Examination. Higher education is largely centered in the capital. The oldest and most prestigious university is Baku State University. Other institutions include the Azerbaijan Technical University and the Azerbaijan State Petroleum Academy.

Health Care: Azerbaijan’s health care system, which was already inadequate in comparison to other Soviet republics, went into further decline following independence. The government has failed to meet the policy of universal health care, and there have been shortages of medicine and equipment. Health care practitioners are poorly paid and most patients have to pay for their medical services.

The government of Azerbaijan is prioritizing improvements in prenatal and postnatal care to lower the high infant mortality rate, which stood at 10.9 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2024, while aiming to make healthcare more cost-effective and implementing an insurance program. Environmental clean-up projects, which could reduce the incidence of illnesses and birth defects, have received little funding.

Food: Azerbaijan’s cuisine shares many dishes found throughout Central Asia and Turkey. A wide array of spices and fresh vegetables are used to give the dishes their characteristic flavors. Thick soups, prepared from meat stock, are commonly served as the first course. The second course can consist of plov, a rice dish with many variations, or any number of grilled meat dishes usually made from lamb. Fish and caviar are also popular.

At mealtimes, black tea precedes the second course; it is also drunk in large amounts in teahouses throughout the country. Meals can end with any of several sherbet drinks. Popular flavors include saffron, lemon, and rose petal. This drink can be served with jams or pastries.

Arts & Entertainment: Azerbaijan’s rich cultural traditions reached their pinnacle during the medieval era, in literature, science, music, architecture, and decorative arts. A renaissance in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was brought to an end by Soviet domination of the country, which involved the repression of Azerbaijani culture and the murder of many writers and intellectuals.

In medieval literature, Abul Hasan Shirvani’s “Astronomy,” Nizami Ganjavi’s collection of poems “Khamsa of Nizami,” and Mohammed Fizuli’s poems and satires such as “Laila and Majnun” and “A Book of Complaints” exerted much influence on subsequent writers and thinkers and remain well considered. The nineteenth-century playwright Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzade was important because he chose to write in common Azerbaijani rather than in the language of the court. His plays are still performed today.

Azerbaijani music ranges from improvised songs accompanied by kobuz, a stringed instrument, to operas such as those by Uzeyir Hajibavov, whose “Laila and Majnun” is recognized internationally. Another popular folk form is the mugam. In this type of composition, instruments such as the kamenche (a spiked fiddle) alternate with a vocal arrangement.

Miniatures, calligraphy, weaponry, and carvings are central to the achievements of Azerbaijani artisans, but the country is most famous for its carpets. The tradition of carpet weaving continues to this day.

Buildings and monuments of architectural merit are scattered across Azerbaijan. These include the Maiden’s Tower, Shirvanshah’s Palace, the Momine Khatun mausoleum as well as numerous bridges and mosques. Most of these structures date from the medieval era.

Holidays: Azerbaijanis celebrate a host of patriotic holidays. Among them are Martyrs’ Day (January 20), Republic Day (May 28), Constitution Day (November 12), and Azeri Solidarity Day (December 31). Independence Day, celebrated on October 18, marks Azerbaijan’s independence from the Soviet Union.

The most commonly celebrated Islamic holidays are Ramadan; Eid al-Fitr, which concludes Ramadan and involves feasting and gift-giving; and Kurban Bayram (also known as Eid al-Adha), a day on which Abraham’s obedience to God is commemorated with the slaughter of animals and large feasts. Nowruz, an Islamic festival with pagan roots, welcomes spring and the new year. It lasts several days in the third week of March and entails musical performances and dances, sporting events, and family feasts.

Environment and Geography

Topography: Azerbaijan has two separate areas, with a stretch of Armenia dividing them: the main portion and the autonomous republic of Nakhchivan.

Half of Azerbaijan’s terrain is low coastal land and low rolling steppe, while the rest is mountainous. The Caspian Sea forms the eastern coast, parts of which dip well below sea level. The coast’s most distinctive feature is the Absheron peninsula, where the capital is located. The central portion of the country and the southeast are also lowlands.

In general, Azerbaijan is surrounded by mountains. The Greater Caucasus stretch along part of the northeastern border and continue southeast to the Absheron peninsula. Mount Bazarduzu Dagi, the country’s highest peak at 4,466 meters (14,652 feet), rises from this range. Along part of the border with Armenia rise the Lesser Caucasus. In the southeast, bordering Iran, are the Talish Mountains.

Several large rivers have their source in the Caucasus and cross Azerbaijan’s central lowlands and eventually empty into the Caspian Sea. The Kura and Aras are the most significant rivers. The damming of the Kura has formed the country’s largest body of water, the Mingacevir Reservoir, measuring 605 square kilometers (234 square miles). Like the rivers themselves, water released from the reservoir along the Upper Karabakh Canal is vital for the irrigation of the lowlands.

Natural Resources: Azerbaijan has modest mineral deposits, including zinc, iron ore, aluminum, copper, lead, cobalt, bauxite, molybdenum, and limestone. Enormous offshore oil and natural gas reserves are the most important resources, though neither has yet been exploited to its fullest potential.

As in many former Soviet republics, Azerbaijan has troubling environmental problems that arose from an emphasis on production at any cost. Among the worst affected areas are the Absheron peninsula and the waters of the Caspian Sea. Oil spills, untreated sewage, DDT, and chemical fertilizers have all contributed to the degradation of the land and sea, including animal populations. Moreover, the air of industrial cities, especially Baku, suffers severe pollution from the oil industry.

Plants & Animals: Both the mountains and the southeast lowlands support tree growth, which covers only 11.3 percent of the country’s total area. Species include pine, beech, and oak.

Wild boar, deer, and bear inhabit the mountain forests. In the dry lowlands, reptiles such as snakes and lizards are common. Among the larger animals are hyenas and gazelles.

The coast of the Caspian Sea is an important migratory corridor for an array of birds, though the pollution in this area has harmed their populations. For the same reason, the Caspian seal is listed as endangered, and populations of sturgeon have decreased.

Climate: Azerbaijan has experienced rising temperatures and more frequent heatwaves, creating pressures on public health systems, increasing energy demand, and intensifying water scarcity.

The country features several distinct climatic zones, including the eastern and central steppe with long, hot summers and low rainfall; the southeastern lowlands with a humid subtropical climate and over 1,000 millimeters (39 inches) of annual rainfall; the mild Caspian coastal areas; and the northern mountains, where winter snowfall is heavy. Average annual rainfall across Azerbaijan is about 203 millimeters (8 inches), with spring and summer temperatures ranging from 20 to 30 degrees Celsius (70 to 80 degrees Fahrenheit) and fall and winter temperatures between 5 and 10 degrees Celsius (40 to 50 degrees Fahrenheit).

Economy

Azerbaijan’s economy entered a period of sustained growth beginning in the mid-1990s. Nonetheless, decades of economic mismanagement, followed by a costly conflict with Armenia, impeded reforms. However, high oil prices as well as further development of the oil industry contributed to the positive trend.

In 2024, Azerbaijan’s gross domestic product (GDP) based on purchasing power parity (PPP) was estimated at US$225.198 billion, with a GDP growth rate of 4.1 percent. Per capita GDP for the same year was approximately US$22,100. The labor force was estimated at 5.02 million, while the unemployment rate stood at 5.6 percent.

Industry: Industry accounts for over half of Azerbaijan's GDP but employs a fairly small share of the country's labor force. Offshore oil drilling and oil refining dominate the sector. Gunesli, Cirak, Azeri, and Kepez are the four major oilfields located in the Caspian Sea. Foreign investment, new pipelines, and agreements with neighboring countries for the flow of oil to various ports have encouraged the expansion of the industry. Natural gas production is less developed but also important, and expanding the production will offset the country’s reliance on oil revenues.

Other portions of the industrial sector include oilfield equipment, steel, iron ore, cement, chemicals and petrochemicals, and textiles.

Agriculture: Agriculture remained a major part of Azerbaijan's economy well into the early twenty-first century, employing over a third of the country's labor force for much of the 2010s, even though agriculture accounted for a relatively small portion of GDP. Around 25.3 percent of Azerbaijan’s land is arable (2023 estimate), and most of it requires irrigation. Azerbaijan’s distinct climatic diversity means that it can produce a wide range of crops.

Grapes, cotton, and tobacco, followed by citrus fruits and vegetables, have the highest yield. Nuts, grains, and tea are also produced. Cattle, goats, pigs and sheep are the most common livestock.

Tourism: Azerbaijan’s tourism sector has gradually recovered from earlier setbacks linked to regional conflicts and economic disruptions. The country offers a variety of cultural attractions, including the old quarter of Baku, medieval castles, palaces, and mosques. The Ateshgah Temple, where fire emerges from natural gas deposits, has served as an important religious site for millennia. Key collections of art and historical artifacts are displayed at the State Museum of Shirvan-Shakh and the State Museum of Azerbaijan Literature, while the open-air Gobustan museum showcases Neolithic rock carvings. Natural attractions include the Caucasus Mountains, hot springs and medicinal spas, and a diverse range of wildlife.

Government

Since independence in 1991, democratic reform has been lackluster, and both internal and regional conflicts have occurred. Though the current government has presided over a period of stability, it is dominated by former Soviet leaders, and international observers have pronounced elections neither free nor fair.

Azerbaijan is a republic as set out in the 1995 constitution. A president is head of state, and a prime minister is head of government. The president is elected to a by popular vote and is responsible for appointing the prime minister as well as the Council of Ministers, both of which the legislature must approve. In a 2009 referendum, Azerbaijan’s government eliminated presidential term limits. In 2016, the government approved extending presidential terms from five to seven years.

The legislature is a unicameral body called the National Assembly (Milli Mejlis). It consists of 125 members, all but five of whom are elected by popular vote to five-year terms. The remaining seats are assigned proportionally according to votes per party.

The judicial branch consists of the Supreme Court, the Constitutional Court, and the Economic Court. Justices are nominated by the president and approved by the National Assembly.

Administratively, Azerbaijan is divided into sixty-six districts (rayons) and eleven cities; one of these cities is Naxcivan, an autonomous republic which complies with the governmental framework of the country. Azerbaijan and Armenia had longstanding tension regarding the status of Nagorno-Karabakh, which had proclaimed independence as the Republic of Artsakh by the early 1990s (although it legally remained part of Azerbaijan and was not recognized by either country). The region was situated fully within the borders of Azerbaijan, but was backed by Armenia financially and militarily. Peace talks often stalled and there were frequent ceasefire violations. In April 2016, dozens of soldiers on both sides of the conflict died in fighting.

In September 2020, the conflict escalated into a full-scale war between Azerbaijan and Armenia when Azerbaijan attacked Armenian forces along the line of contact, which had separated the two countries' military forces since 1994. By November of that year, the conflict had resulted in thousands of casualties on both sides, including roughly two hundred civilians. Azerbaijan emerged as the victor and reclaimed territory in Nagorno-Karabakh previously occupied by Armenia.

Despite Azerbaijan's victory and the presence of Russian peacekeepers, tensions remained high in the area in subsequent years; throughout 2023 Azerbaijan enacted a blockade around Nagorno-Karabakh, which continued to assert independence. In September 2023 Azerbaijan launched a full-scale invasion of the territory; 80 percent of the Armenian population fled, the separatist government of Artsakh dissolved, and Azerbaijan re-asserted authority over the entire area for the first time since the 1990s.

Major political parties include the Azerbaijan Popular Front, the Civic Solidarity Party, the Liberal Party of Azerbaijan, and the Social Democratic Party of Azerbaijan. Opposition parties are often fractious and tend to form new coalitions frequently. Despite the existence of opposition parties, the country's government is authoritarian.

Ilham Aliyev took over as president from his father Heydar in 2003. He won a fifth consecutive term in February 2024.

Interesting Facts

• The modern oil industry was commenced in Baku in the nineteenth century.
• The prophet Zoroaster, around whom the religion of Zoroastrianism was formed, was born in Azerbaijan in the seventh century BCE.
• Yanar Dağ, also known as Fire Mountain, is a natural fire that burns continuously due to large underground gas reserves. It was described by explorer Marco Polo in the thirteenth century.

Bibliography

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"Azerbaijan." The World Bank, 15 May 2025, data.worldbank.org/country/azerbaijan. Accessed 23 Jan. 2025.

"Azerbaijan." The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 15 Dec. 2025, www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/azerbaijan/. Accessed 22 Dec. 2025.

"Azerbaijan Moves to Reaffirm Control of Nagorno-Karabakh as the Armenian Exodus Slows to a Trickle." AP News, 13 Oct. 2023, apnews.com/article/armenia-azerbaijan-nagorno-karabakh-separatist-4c5983327329e01c8647dffaddc486b6. Accessed 26 Oct. 2023.

Human Development Insights, United Nations Development Programme, 13 Mar. 2024, hdr.undp.org/data-center/country-insights#/ranks. Accessed 23 Jan. 2025.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Climate Change 2023: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability – Europe. IPCC, 2023, www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/. Accessed 22 Dec. 2025.

Kramer, Andrew E. "Armenia and Azerbaijan: What Sparked War and Will Peace Prevail?" The New York Times, 29 Jan. 2021, www.nytimes.com/article/armenian-azerbaijan-conflict.html. Accessed 27 May 2022.