Electronic media and psychological impact

Type of psychology: Clinical; Consumer; Counseling; Developmental; Media; Social

Electronic media have the potential to transform the way individuals and groups communicate. These media vary across many factors including the types of communication signals (facial expressions, head nods, voice modulation), their chronemic timing (synchronous or asynchronous), and their ability to provide feedback and behavioral confirmation. These characteristics can be both advantageous and disadvantageous as compared to face-to-face communication.

Introduction

Technological advances have spawned new and diverse ways that individuals can communicate with each other. These media vary in their capacity to communicate messages, the amount and quality of the information they can convey, the synchronicity of the interaction (that is communicating at the same time or asynchronously), and the anonymity of the participants. Of concern is how well electronic media can convey the breadth, depth, and nuances of communication like humor, emotion, trust, and credibility. Face-to-face (FTF) communication is considered the standard because it allows the exchange of a wide range of information that facilitates the ability to convey and interpret the meaning of a message, its veracity, as well as critical information about the sender including interest level, credibility, attitudinal similarity, and affinity. Communication across other types of media like written letters, text messages, and email varies in the amount of information that can be expressed by the sender and gleaned from the message by the receiver. As such, researchers have been interested in how these alternate ways of communicating influence the quality of the interaction, its efficiency, the development of interpersonal bonds, and the resulting outcomes (such as decision quality, negotiation profit). Early theorists believed that non-FTF forms of communication were impoverished compared to FTF. They lacked key elements and led to poor quality communication and social interactions. More recent developments recognize both the social benefits and drawbacks that electronic media pose for communication.

Theoretical Perspectives

Social Presence Theories. Early theories focused on the negative impact of media on communication and social interaction. Short, Williams, and Christie developed the social presence theory of media prior to the widespread use of personal computers, internet access, and the cell phone revolution. Social presence was the degree to which a communication medium created a warm, close, interpersonal rapport between communicators. Media such as telephone and written communication were believed to create the perception of less presence than face-to-face communication because they involved interpersonal interaction that was less intimate, less immediate, and colder. Rodney Wellens extended this to computer-mediated communication and focused on the concept of psychological distance. Electronic forms of communication such as email, electronic chat, and message boards were hypothesized to have narrower bandwidths. Bandwidth referred to the ability of the medium to allow the exchange of a wide range of information during the conversation. The assumption was that greater information exchange led to warmer and higher quality interactions. Narrow bandwidth media resulted in reduced information exchange and difficulties developing close interpersonal bonds. Consequently, narrow bandwidth media were believed to lead to less effective communication and to have a negative impact on outcomes and interpersonal relationships. Supporting the social presence theory, Kiesler, Siegel, and McGuire found that individuals using narrow bandwidth media engaged in more disinhibited behavior (referred to as flaming behavior) including swearing, name calling, and hostile comments than those communicating FTF.

Media Richness Theory. Daft and Lengel proposed media richness theory to describe how media varied from one another. Richness refers to the number of information cues and quality of those cues that can be conveyed. Richer media convey more cues including the content of the verbal message, vocal cues, nonverbal cues, feedback information, and status cues. The verbal message refers to the content of the message being exchanged. Vocal cues include the speed of speech, pitch, and variations in speech patterns such as an increase in volume or hesitation. Nonverbal cues include eye contact, smiling, and hand gestures used when talking. Feedback can be conveyed through head nods, and utterances of agreement indicate understanding and reception of information. Status and power can be conveyed through symbolic actions such as sitting at the head of the table or through style of dress. In contrast, anonymity of participants can remove status cues and lead to greater equalization of participation. Richness is a function of the medium. Media that lack or block more cues are considered impoverished media. Ones that allow the exchange of more cues, like FTF, are considered richer media. Because richer media allow for greater information exchange, they are expected to result in higher quality interactions, better communication, and better outcomes.

Social Influence Theory. Social influence theory proposed that the effect of media on communication resulted because interaction, its interpretation, and its meaning are socially constructed among participants. Thus feelings of presence or distance are not solely a function of the communication medium used but are affected by the people as they interact, their perceptions, and their engagement with one another. Social influence theory emphasizes the basic need humans have to establish interpersonal relationships. Some relationships develop quickly, while others take more time to grow and flourish. In these interactions, we form impressions of others, exchange information, and assess whether we have an affinity/attraction for continuing the relationship. Information is exchanged through a give and take process which involves asking questions and revealing information through self-disclosure. People are motivated to develop relationships regardless of the medium used to communicate. Although missing cues, electronic forms of communication and text based messages can still produce strong interpersonal bonds, but they may take longer to develop. When cues are missing, communicators will adapt to whatever cues are available.

Social Identity Model of Deindividuation Effects (SIDE). The SIDE model recognizes that people develop identities that are both personal and social. The identity that becomes most salient will depend on the expectations and goals of individuals and groups involved in the interaction. Immersion in a group leads to depersonalization, a shift from a personal identity to a group identity. Instead of predicting disinhibited behavior when a group identity becomes salient, the theory predicts that depersonalization will result in individuals adhering more closely to the norms and standards of their most salient identities. Salient identities provide communicators with information and expectations about the type, quantity, and quality of knowledge and personal details that should be shared.

Media vary in the extent to which individuals can feel anonymous. Anonymity can have varying effects. Anonymity changes the relative salience of personal versus social identities. When group categorizations become more salient, individuals may strive to represent themselves as ideal group members and more strongly adhere to perceived group norms and values. Alternatively, anonymity may make the personal identity more salient increasing the individual’s adherence to his or her own personal goals and values.

When information is missing, individuals might apply self-stereotypes to other group members and generalize their own beliefs and characteristics to “in-group members.” Greater affinity for so called “in-group” members will result because without detailed information, the person assumes that the anonymous group members share similar views and interests. This perceived similarity increases the individual’s willingness to share information and to trust the anonymous other.

Anonymity can also lead to less adherence to group norms. The lack of identity can increase behaviors that go against group norms. When interacting with members of a disliked or unsympathetic group, an individual may be more likely to feel less committed to group norms and to express his or her own opinions, values, and ideals.

Anonymity in electronic forms of communication also allows individuals to be strategic in their communications. They can present a certain image by highlighting certain aspects of their identity while downplaying other aspects. Facebook is a good example. Some people post only about the fun and interesting activities they engage in, while leaving out the mundane, boring, and perhaps more negative aspects of their daily lives.

Hyperpersonal Theory. Walther proposed the hyperpersonal theory of communication media because results of studies showed that sometimes less rich media were advantageous and sometimes they led to poorer outcomes. This theory was derived from the theoretical bases of the SIDE theory and social influence theory.

Hyperpersonal theory suggests that media can vary in how personal individuals feel using a medium and that these feelings can be beneficial and increase the effectiveness of the communication or can be disadvantageous. In less rich media, where there are fewer cues, individuals may be more likely to develop positive impressions of group members from social groups that they positively identify with and develop close, trusting relationships quickly. Anonymity in this case will build strong interpersonal bonds and likely lead to communication using electronic media (like texting or email) that is as effective as or possibly more effective than FTF communication. In the case where individuals are not identifiable and their values diverge from those of the group, they may be more willing to share their ideas and viewpoints using restricted media due to increased feelings of anonymity. This more candid sharing of information can lead to improved group decision making and represents an advantage of less rich media. In using less rich media, individuals will adapt their communication by using alternate types of cues. Essentially, hyperpersonal theory suggests that the social impact of electronic media can be both advantageous as well as detrimental. The outcome is dependent on the context and the people within the context.

Media Naturalness Theory. Media naturalness theory was proposed by Ned Kock and takes an evolutionary, Darwinian perspective on electronic media. Kock suggested that over evolutionary history, the human brain has evolved to communicate FTF. Newer forms of communication represent aspects of the environment to which humans must adapt. These forms represent obstacles that need to be overcome. Communication naturalness is comparative to FTF communication and is based on five characteristics: 1) co-location (our ability see and hear each other), 2) synchronicity, 3) the medium’s ability to allow facial expressions to be conveyed and observed, 4) the medium’s ability to allow body language to be conveyed and observed, and 5) the medium’s ability to allow speech qualities to be conveyed and observed. In communication, there are often redundancies and some cues are not necessarily needed to communicate the message, the meaning, or the interpretation. Communication fluency (ease of understanding, speed of encoding and decoding the message, reduction in interpretation and message reception errors) varies with regard to the cognitive effort required to interpret the message. Cognitive effort is a function of the ambiguity of the message, the complexity of the message including the number of extraneous cues, and the amount of physiological arousal (excitement and pleasure) communicators experience in the context. Complex or ambiguous information will require cognitive effort to filter unnecessary components and interpret meaning. If the interaction requires individuals to search for or integrate information from a variety of sources, this can increase the cognitive effort required and decrease perceptions of media naturalness. In terms of naturalness, speech appears to be a more important cue than facial expressions and body language.

To make up for the lack of media naturalness, individuals can engage in compensatory adaptation which is a means of compensating for missing information or disfluency. Emoticons are one example of compensatory adaptation. In emails and text messages, a smiley face can be used to indicate that a person is joking. A language of abbreviations in text messaging (e.g., LOL – laughing out loud) allows the quick and easy communication of phrases without the need for typing the whole thought. Many cell phone text-messaging applications suggest words and phrases based on just a few typed letters. These innovations, however, can also lead to disfluency, for example auto correction errors that substitute the wrong word or even an embarrassing one. To the degree that individuals have to put effort into compensatory adaptation, the quality of the interaction may suffer, as well as their satisfaction with the relationship.

Media Synchronicity Theory. The final theory to be considered is media synchronicity theory (Dennis & Valacich, 1999), which suggests that communicators match media to their communication needs. The idea is that the goals of individuals and/or groups will determine the effectiveness of the medium used for communication. Matching the media to the need will reduce the detrimental effects of media and improve the quality of communications.

Applications

People are engaging in social interaction on computers, smartphones, and tablets. For many individuals from recent generations, such as those in the millennial (1984–94) and digital native (1995–present) generations, mediated communication (e.g., texting, email, and the use of social networking) has always been part of how they communicate and connect with friends. People connect through social networking like Facebook, LinkedIn, and SnapChat. They talk to one another using video chat like Skype and Facetime. They interact in virtual worlds like the World of Warcraft and Second Life using avatar representations of themselves. They search for jobs and potential dates online. People shop and conduct business online. Telecommuting allows individuals to work remotely and creates the need for managers to supervise remotely. Students and workers can seek learning and training opportunities online. Distance learning programs allow course content to be delivered through electronic forms of communication. Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC) have the potential to change radically the nature of higher education. Even corporate training has been transformed by mediated communication. Organizations with global workforces rely on a variety of mediated training approaches such as webinars, collaborative electronic meetings, and m-learning (i.e., mobile learning) modules presented on smartphones or tablets. The types of computer-mediated communication technologies are growing and evolving and have important implications for our everyday lives.

Online Social Support and Prosocial Behavior

People seek social support online to deal with a variety of stressors in their lives. For example, people connect through social media after a disaster, following job loss, and when facing a serious illness. They seek information and to connect with others who are faced with similar experiences sharing strategies for coping. The research evidence shows that this type of online support can have many positive effects.

Electronic media can enhance prosocial and helping behavior. Social networking can be used to rally support and help for a person in a time of need. Viral electronic media campaigns can be used to successfully raise funds for charities and recognize the positive contributions of individuals.

Electronic media also can lead to power equalization and greater participation of members of under-represented groups. Women negotiators using electronic mediated communication were more likely to adopt the assertive negotiation style often used by male negotiators.

Online Dating

Online dating sites and smartphone applications, such as OKCupid and Tinder, have become a popular way for individuals to meet romantic and sexual partners. Theories of the psychological impact of electronic media can provide insight into how people may respond differently in an online versus a FTF dating context. Hyperpersonal theory suggests that because online dating interactions have sparse cues, people may “fill in the blanks” and assume they have a lot more in common with virtual strangers than FTF strangers. Virtual daters may be more likely to idealize their online partners than FTF daters. When creating an online dating profile individuals might be more likely to strategically exclude information and present themselves in a flattering light. Whitty discussed the need for online daters to create a balance between an attractive version of the self and the real self. Online daters may be prone to disclose too much or too soon. Often online dating relationships progress from online contact to speaking on the phone to meeting in person. Strategic self-presentation and the potential for outright deception in online dating can have important implications for personal safety and the probability of long-term relationship success.

Online Aggression, Cyberbullying, and Public Shaming

The potential for electronic mediated interactions to lead to greater disinhibited behavior and more depersonalization means that electronic forms of communication may lead to aggressive online behavior. Virtual negotiators engaged in more hostile behavior than FTF negotiators. There is growing interest in the phenomenon of cyberbullying which occurs when individuals post comments, photos, images, videos, or other electronic messages that are meant to ridicule or embarrass another person. Similar to cyberbullies, internet trolls—internet slang for people intentionally upset people online—use their anonymity to provoke arguments, post inflammatory statements, and harass large groups of people on internet forums and comment sections on social media sites like Facebook and YouTube. Electronic media often lead to greater perceived distance between the targets and the bully. Targets become faceless and dehumanized. Bullies experience less empathy and engagement with the target and are removed from the potential for direct personal confrontation. Targets of aggression are readily available and access is 24/7. Cyber insults and ridicule can be broadcast with little effort to a large number of people almost instantaneously. Often victims of cyberbullying feel isolated and experience ostracism in a powerful way.

Ronson (2015) described the devastation experienced by individuals who have been publicly shamed using social media like Facebook and Twitter. Ill-considered tweets and posts that may be perceived as violating social norms can lead to a maelstrom of attacks and public criticism. Tens of thousands of individuals can jump on the bandwagon. Incidents of public shaming can take a great personal and financial toll on the shamed individual including loss of job, trauma, depression, and condemnation from family and friends.

Theories of the psychological impact of electronic media have important implications for understanding who is likely to engage in online aggression like cyberbullying, virtual rape, hate language, cyberstalking, and public shaming and the conditions that are likely to lead to mob rule.

As electronic forms of communication change the way people interact and behave, they have important implications for everyday life.

Bibliography

Amichai-Hamburger, Y. (2013). The Social Net: Understanding our Online Behavior. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Baym, N. (2010) Personal Connections In The Digital Age. Malden, MA: Polity Press.

Bircheier, Z., Dietz-Uhler, B., & Stasser, G. (Eds.) (2011). Strategic Uses Of Social Technology: An Interactive Perspective Of Social Psychology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Daft, R. L., & Lengel, R. H. (1984). “Information Richness: A New Approach To Managerial Behavior and Organization Design”. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior (pp. 191–233). Greenwich: JAI Press.

Kiesler, S., Siegel, J., & McGuire, T. W. (1984). “Social Psychological Aspects Of Computer-Mediated Communication. American Psychologist, 39(10), 1123–1134. doi:10.1037/0003–066X.39.10.1123doi:10.1016/j.im.2008.12.002

Kock, N. (2012). “Media Naturalness Theory: Human Evolution and Behaviour Towards Electronic Communication Technologies”. In S. C. Roberts (Ed.), Applied Evolutionary Psychology (pp. 381–398). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Ronson, J. (2015). So You’ve Been Publicly Shamed. New York, NY: Riverhead Books.

Short, J. A., Williams, E., & Christie, B. (1976). The Social Psychology Of Telecommunications. London, UK: John Wiley & Sons.

Stuhlmacher, A. F., & Citera, M. (2005). “Hostile Behavior and Profit In Virtual Negotiation: A Meta-Analysis”. Journal of Business and Psychology, 20(1), 69–93. doi:10.1007/s10869–005–6984-y

Walther, J. B. (2011). “Theories Of Computer-Mediated Communication and Interpersonal Relations”. In M. L. Knapp & J. A. Daly (Eds.), The Handbook Of Interpersonal Communication (4th ed., pp. 443–479). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

"What Is Cyberbullying." StopBullying, 26 July 2018, www.stopbullying.gov/cyberbullying/what-is-it/index.html. Accessed 12 Oct. 2018.