Ottoman Civil Wars
The Ottoman Civil Wars were a series of internal conflicts that emerged following the death of Sultan Mehmed II in 1481, primarily driven by disputes over succession and political power among rival factions within the empire. The immediate power struggle involved Mehmed's sons, Bayezid II and Cem, along with various political figures and military leaders, leading to significant violence and instability. Following Mehmed's death, the Janissaries, the elite military corps, played a crucial role in securing Bayezid II's ascent to the throne, while Cem initially found some success in battles against Bayezid's forces.
As the conflict progressed, it became apparent that differing policies and allegiances created deep rifts within the empire. Bayezid's passive governance attracted discontent, particularly from his son Selim, who eventually led a revolt against his father. The civil wars saw numerous battles, shifting alliances, and significant losses, culminating in Selim's ascension to the throne after Bayezid's death in 1512. The aftermath of these wars profoundly affected the Ottoman political landscape, including the elimination of various princely rivals, and set the stage for Selim’s eventual consolidation of power. The civil wars reflect the complexities of Ottoman succession and governance, highlighting the intersection of personal ambition, military loyalty, and broader socio-political tensions within the empire.
On this Page
Ottoman Civil Wars
At issue: Struggle for the throne
Date: May 3, 1481-April 5, 1513
Location: Anatolia (Turkey)
Combatants: Sultan Bayezid II vs. Prince (Sultan) Cem; Sultan Selim I vs. Prince (Sultan) Ahmed
Principal commanders: Bayezid II (1448–1512), Cem (1459–1495), Selim I (1470–1520), Ahmed (1465–1513)
Principal battles: First Yenişehir, çukurçimen Yaylak, Ankara, çorlu, Second Yenişehir
Result: Bayezid II and Selim I were victorious; both ascended to the throne
Background
With the death of Mehmed II on May 3, 1481, the law regarding the succession to the throne resulted in not only a quarrel between the brothers but also a civil war. The competition over the throne was also a continuation of a dispute between Grand Vizier Karamani Mehmed Pasha and the former vizier, Ishak Pasha. The Shiite propaganda must also have played a role.
The Janissaries, upon Mehmed’s death, looted the houses of rich men and killed Grand Vizier Karamani Mehmed Pasha, Prince Cem’s supporter. They secured the throne for Bayezid II, declaring his son Korkud as sultan until the arrival of Bayezid (May 20, 1481).
Action
With a force of 1,000 men, Cem, the governor of Karaman, marched on to Bursa, where he defeated a force of 2,000 Janissaries commanded by the third vizier, Ayas Pasha. Cem defeated Ayas Pasha and his forces in a battle that took place outside the city. Bayezid later defeated Cem and his Turkomen instigators at the First Battle of Yeni8ehir Plain (June 20, 1481). Cem escaped Konya and left for Egypt on June 28.
Kasim Bey, the former ruler of Karaman, and Mehmed Bey, the sancakbey of Ankara, sent letters to Cem urging him to come back. He did, but Bayezid’s forces defeated him and his instigators first at çukurçimen Yaylak, then at Ankara on June 8, 1482. Cem escaped again on July 20 and took refuge with the Knights of St. John (Hospitalers) at Rhodes, who took him to Europe.
Bayezid both ascended and descended the throne in dispute. There was discontent with him in Anatolia and Karaman because of his passive policy that had opened the way to bribery in acquiring government positions. Bayezid’s love for Prince Ahmed and the latter’s insistence on refusing the appointments of the other princes to positions close to the capital gave rise to dispute among the competitors for the throne and their supporters.
Selim I, discontent with his father’s passive policy toward Kizilbashes and convinced of not being able to find supporters in Anatolia in case of a struggle over the throne, left for Rumelia via Kefe. This act, as well as the instigators in Istanbul, incited Bayezid against Selim. Bayezid’s 40,000 troops confronted Selim’s 30,000 and defeated them near çorlu on August 3, 1511. Selim escaped to Kefe.
The rebellion that Şahkulu, leader of Kizilbashes, had started with 1,000 men on April 19, 1510, continued. The Grand Vizier Ali Pasha’s forces defeated them at Gökçayi on July 2, 1511, but Ali Pasha was killed on the battlefield.
Ali Pasha’s death meant a loss of an important supporter for Prince Ahmed when he was secretly called to Istanbul to succeed his aging, sick father. The Janissaries raided and looted the houses of those supporting Prince Ahmed, then assembled before the Porte demanding the dismissal of all high officials (September, 1511). They blocked the strait and did not allow Prince Ahmed, who had camped at Maltepe, to cross. Prince Ahmed marched on to Karaman and took over the governorship from Prince Mehmed’s son Şehinşah. Meanwhile, Nur Ali Halife, the leader of Kizilbash Turkomen, took advantage of this dispute and rebelled. The rebels were only defeated after Selim ascended the throne.
Prince Ahmed’s passivity against the Kizilbash uprising created a dislike for him in Istanbul. This facilitated the decision to call Selim to take over the throne (April 24, 1512). Bayezid left the capital for Dimetoka to retire, but he died on the way in Söĝütlüdere near Edirne on May 26, 1512.
As soon as his son Süleyman I arrived from Kefe on July 29, Selim marched on to Bursa (December, 1512), where he had five princes put to death. The next victim was Prince Korkud. Sinan Bey, one of Selim’s supporters, had him strangled in Teke-ili, where he had taken refuge.
Aftermath
Prince Ahmed, still hoping to succeed to the throne, headed for Bursa via Konya. Selim confronted him at the plain of Yeni8ehir on April 5, 1513, where he was defeated and killed. His son Murad escaped to Iran; his son Alaaddin fled to Egypt. They both died abroad.
Bibliography
Gibb, H. A. R., et al., eds. The Encyclopedia of Islam. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1986.
Goodwin, Jason. Lords of the Horizons: A History of the Ottoman Empire. London: Vintage, 1999.
Wheatcroft, Andrew. The Ottomans: Dissolving Images. London: Viking, 1993.