Thutmose III

Egyptian pharaoh (r. 1504-1450 b.c.e.)

• Born: Late sixteenth century b.c.e.
• Birthplace: Probably near Thebes, Egypt
• Died: 1450 b.c.e.
• Place of death: Probably near Thebes, Egypt

During a reign of nearly fifty-four years, Thutmose III consolidated Egypt’s position as primary power in the ancient Near East and North Africa. He laid the groundwork for some two hundred years of relative peace and prosperity in the region.

Early Life

Thutmose (THUHT-mohz) III, son of Thutmose II and a minor wife named Isis, became the fifth king of Egypt’s Eighteenth Dynasty (c. 1570-1295 b.c.e.) while still a child. It is very likely that Thutmose III was not the obvious heir to Egypt’s throne. According to an inscription at Karnak carved late in his reign, the young Thutmose spent his early life as an acolyte in the Temple of Amen. Thutmose III asserted that the god Amen personally chose him as successor to his father: During a ritual procession of Amen’s statue through the temple, the god sought out Thutmose; an oracle revealed that he was the god’s choice to be the next king. Thutmose thus became his father’s legitimate heir.

The historical value of this account has been doubted. It was recorded late in Thutmose III’s reign. Furthermore, it closely parallels an earlier text describing the accession of Thutmose I. Whatever the historical value of this account for determining the legitimacy of Thutmose III’s claim to succeed his father, he did ascend to the Egyptian throne on the death of Thutmose II. Contemporary inscriptions make clear, however, that during the first twenty-one years of the reign, real power was held by Hatshepsut (c. 1503-1482 b.c.e.), the chief queen or Great King’s Wife of his father.

The relationship between Thutmose III and Hatshepsut in these early years has been the subject of scholarly controversy. By year 2 of Thutmose III’s reign, Hatshepsut had assumed all the regalia of a reigning king. Yet it is not at all certain that she thrust Thutmose III into the background in order to usurp his royal prerogative, as early twentieth century commentators have claimed. Hatshepsut probably crowned herself coregent to obtain the authority to administrate the country while Thutmose III was still a minor. Hatshepsut’s year dates are often recorded alongside dates of Thutmose III. There is also evidence that his approval was necessary for significant decisions such as installing a vizier, establishing offering endowments for gods, and authorizing expeditions to Sinai.

In any case, there is no question that Thutmose’s early years were spent in preparation for his eventual assumption of sole authority. His education included study of hieroglyphic writing. Contemporaries comment on his ability to read and write like Seshat, the goddess of writing. His military training must also have occurred during this time.

When Hatshepsut died in the twenty-second year of Thutmose III’s reign, he assumed sole control of the country. Whether it was at this point that an attempt was made by Thutmose III to obliterate the memory of Hatshepsut is open to doubt. It is clear that Thutmose III emphasized his descent from Thutmose II as part of the basis for his legitimate right to rule Egypt.

The mummy of Thutmose III reveals a man of medium build, almost 5 feet (1.5 meters) in height—for his time, he was relatively tall. He appears to have enjoyed good health throughout most of his life, avoiding the serious dental problems common to other Egyptian kings.

Life’s Work

The ancient Egyptians expected their pharaoh’s career to follow a preconceived pattern that was ordained by their gods. This pattern was always followed in the historical texts that the Egyptians wrote describing the accomplishments of their kings. There is good reason to believe that Thutmose III became the prototype for a successful king. His achievements were emulated by his successors throughout most of the New Kingdom (c. 1570-c. 1069 b.c.e.). The pattern included conquests abroad, feats of athletic prowess, and building projects at home.

Between the twenty-third and thirty-ninth years of his reign, Thutmose III undertook fourteen military campaigns. These campaigns are documented in a long historical text carved on the walls at the Temple of Karnak, called the Annals. Various stelae (inscriptions on upright slabs of stone) found in other Egyptian temples also provide information on his career. The most significant campaigns occurred in year 23 and in year 33 of his reign.

The campaign of year 23 was fought against a confederation of Syro-Palestinian states led by Kadesh, a Syrian city-state on the Orontes River. The forces allied with Kadesh had gathered at a city called Megiddo on the Plain of Esdraelan in modern Israel. The Egyptian description of the battle that took place in Megiddo follows a pattern known from other inscriptions yet contains many details that attest its basic historical value.

Thutmose III set out for Syria-Palestine with a large army. On reaching the town of Yehem, near Megiddo, Thutmose III consulted with his general staff on tactics and strategy. The general staff urged caution on the king, suggesting that the main road to Megiddo was too narrow and dangerous for the Egyptian army to pass safely on it. They argued for an alternative route to Megiddo that would be longer, yet safer. Thutmose III rejected his staff’s advice, judging that the bolder course was more likely to succeed. The staff acceded to the king’s superior wisdom; the Egyptian army proceeded along the narrow direct path, surprised the enemy, and encircled Megiddo. The enemy emerged from the city only to be routed through Thutmose’s personal valor. As the enemy retreated, however, the Egyptian forces broke ranks and fell on the weapons that the enemy had abandoned. This unfortunate break in discipline allowed the leaders of the Kadesh confederation to escape back into the city of Megiddo. Thutmose was forced to besiege the city. The siege ended successfully for the Egyptians after seven months, when the defeated chieftains of the alliance approached Thutmose with gifts in token of their submission.

This total defeat of the enemy became synonymous in later times with utter disaster. The name of the Battle of Megiddo—Har Megiddo (Mount Megiddo) in Hebrew—entered English as Armageddon, a word that designates a final cataclysmic battle.

Thutmose was equally wise in his handling of the defeated chieftains as he had been in war. The chieftains were reinstalled on their thrones, now as allies of Egypt. Their eldest sons were taken back to Egypt as hostages to guarantee the chieftains’ cooperation with Egyptian policy. As the various Syro-Palestinian rulers died, their sons would be sent home to rule as Egyptian vassals. These sons, by that time thoroughly trained in Egyptian customs and culture, proved to be generally friendly to Egypt.

Thutmose’s ambitions for Egyptian imperialism extended beyond Syria-Palestine. In the thirty-third year of his reign, he campaigned against the Mitanni, who occupied northern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), the land the Egyptians called Nahrain. This battle also demonstrated Thutmose’s mastery of strategy. He realized that his major problem in attacking the Mitanni would be in crossing the Euphrates River. To that end, he built boats of cedar in Lebanon and transported them overland 250 miles (403 kilometers) on carts. Once again, the element of surprise worked in Thutmose’s favor. He was easily able to cross the river, attack the enemy, and defeat them.

Thutmose demonstrated his athletic prowess on the return trip from Nahrain. He stopped in the land of Niy, in modern Syria, to hunt elephants as had his royal ancestors. His brave deeds included the single-handed slaughter of a herd of 120 elephants.

Thutmose was responsible for initiating a large number of building projects within Egypt and in its Nubian holdings. The chronology of these projects is not understood in detail, but it is clear that he either built or remodeled eight temples in Nubia and seven temples in Upper Egypt. In the Egyptian capital of Thebes, he built mortuary temples for his father and grandfather as well as for himself. He added important buildings to the complex of temples at Karnak. These projects included the site of the Annals and a temple decorated with relief sculptures showing the unusual plant life Thutmose had observed during his campaigns to Syria-Palestine and Mesopotamia. Though it is difficult to identify the plants that interested Thutmose and his artists, this unusual form of decoration for a temple illustrates the king’s interest in scholarly pursuits.

Thutmose’s foresight included planning for his own successor. In the fifty-second year of his reign, his son Amenhotep II was designated coregent. The custom of naming and training an heir to the throne while the father still lived had been known since at least the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055-c. 1650 b.c.e.). Thutmose showed wisdom in choosing as his successor Amenhotep, a son who would largely follow his father’s policies.

The last twelve years of Thutmose III’s reign passed relatively peacefully. The Annals for this period record only the yearly delivery of goods for the king’s and the god’s use.

Little is known of Thutmose III’s personal life. Scholars are in disagreement as to whether he ever married Neferure, the daughter of Hatshepsut. His earliest wife was probably Sit-iakh; she was the mother of Amenemhet, a son who probably died young. A second wife, Meryetre-Hatshepsut II, was the mother of Amenhotep II. Nothing is known of a third royal wife, Nebtu, aside from her name. Four other royal children are known.

During the fifty-fourth year of a reign largely dedicated to war, Thutmose III died peacefully. He was buried by his son Amenhotep II in the tomb that had been prepared in the Valley of the Kings.

Significance

Despite the clichés and preconceived patterns that characterize the sources available for reconstructing the life of Thutmose III, he emerges as a truly remarkable man. His conquests in Syria-Palestine and Mesopotamia laid the groundwork for at least two hundred years of peace and prosperity in the ancient Near East. Vast quantities of goods flowed into Egypt’s coffers from colonial holdings during this time. The royal family, the noblemen, and the temples of the gods came to possess previously unimagined wealth. The threat of foreign domination that had haunted Thutmose’s immediate ancestors was finally dissipated. Egypt looked confidently toward a future of virtually unquestioned dominance over its neighbors.

Thutmose III himself was long remembered by Egyptians as the founder of their country’s prosperity and security. Succeeding kings of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties modeled their reigns on the historic memory of the founder of the Egyptian empire.

In April 2021, Thutmose III's mummy was one of eighteen kings and four queens to be transported from the Egyptian Museum to the new National Museum of Egyptian Civilization in an event called the Pharaohs' Golden Parade.

Bibliography

Goedicke, Hans. The Battle of Megiddo. Baltimore, Md.: Halgo, 2001. An in-depth analysis of the battle, including the events leading up to it and its place in Thutmose’s personal mythology.

Redford, Donald B. The Wars in Syria and Palestine of Thutmose III. New York: Brill, 2003. Discusses the political and military aspects of Thutmose’s reign.

Tulhof, Angelika. Thutmosis III, 1490-1436 B.C.E.: First Conqueror of the Middle East, Artist, and Multiculturalist. London: Karnak House, 2003. A popular biography portraying Thutmose’s accomplishments in modern terms.

Tyldesley, Joyce A. Hatshepsut: The Female Pharaoh. New York: Viking, 1996. This well-researched, scholarly biography of Hatshepsut of necessity also covers the early years of Thutmose’s life as well.