Urban underclass and the rural poor
The terms "urban underclass" and "rural poor" refer to distinct yet overlapping groups characterized by economic disadvantage in urban and rural settings, respectively. In the United States, the urban underclass, often found in impoverished inner-city neighborhoods, is primarily composed of marginalized communities, especially among nonwhite populations, with significant concerns surrounding crime, substance abuse, and limited access to quality education. Conversely, the rural poor, predominantly residing in areas with small populations, face unique challenges, including higher poverty rates in the southern regions and a demographic skew towards older, female-headed, and white households.
While both groups share experiences of poverty, social dynamics differ; the urban underclass often exhibits behaviors reflective of systemic disintegration, whereas the rural poor may contend with isolation and reduced access to employment opportunities. Societal and economic shifts, such as white flight from urban centers and changes in the labor market, have exacerbated these issues over recent decades. Additionally, historical policies, such as the War on Poverty, have had varied impacts on urban and rural populations, highlighting a continuous struggle against the forces that perpetuate poverty across both landscapes. Understanding these contexts is crucial for addressing the systemic barriers that affect these communities and for fostering equitable solutions.
Urban underclass and the rural poor
Significance: “Urban underclass” has come to refer to a segment of the population that resides in urban or central-city areas and experiences high and persistent poverty, social isolation, anomie, and a sense of hopelessness. The “rural poor” consist of poverty-stricken persons living in small or sparsely populated communities.
The use of the terms “urban underclass” and “rural poor” is controversial, and there seems to be no consensus regarding how best to define them. Nonetheless, it is estimated that 45.3 million poor people lived in the United States in 2013, according to US census data. The number of rural poor in the United States was about 7.5 million that year, while those living in metropolitan areas numbered an estimated 37.5 million.
Urban Underclass
A number of subgroups are more likely to be among the urban underclass than others, including children, the elderly, women, nonwhites, and members of female-headed households. Of these, racial affiliation is perhaps the most noted in research. Sociologist William J. Wilson points out that underclass neighborhoods “are populated almost exclusively by the most disadvantaged segments of the black urban community.” This has not changed significantly since anthropologist Gunnar Myrdal wrote in 1962: “The largest and still most handicapped minority group in America is that of the Negroes.”
Increased crime and deviant behavior are two disturbing characteristics of the urban underclass. As a consequence of the entrenched hopelessness found on inner-city streets, drug dealing, use of drugs and alcohol, prostitution, theft, and other forms of crime are prevalent among members of the urban underclass.
Rural Underclass
As defined by the U.S. Census Bureau, “rural” generally applies to settlements with concentrated populations of less than 2,500. Demographic studies show that the rural poor are concentrated heavily in the southern region of the United States. For example, the 2013 rural poverty rate in the South was 20 percent, higher than that of the rest of the country. Moreover, nearly half the rural poor in the United States lived in the South between 2009 and 2013.
The majority of the rural poor are white. This is not to say that rural blacks, Hispanics (of all races), and American Indians do not experience high poverty rates. Statistics show that these subgroups have poverty rates of 37.3 percent, 28.2 percent, and 34.4 percent, respectively, as of 2013. These figures represent poverty rates several times higher than those of their white counterparts. Those suffering from persistent rural poverty are more likely to be elderly, black, female, or members of a female-headed household.
Historically, there have been a number of reasons that many members of the rural population are unable to work. Most noteworthy is the fact that many are children too young to work. Illness and disability are additional reasons that many of the rural poor are not among the workforce. Moreover, educational attainment is lower in rural areas than in metropolitan areas.
Urban-Rural Comparisons
On the surface it might appear that the only difference between the urban underclass and the rural poor is their geographic location and concentration of population. A closer look at the population subgroups (such as elderly, female-headed households, and nonwhites) reveals that this is not the case. In 2013, for example, the rural elderly had a slightly higher poverty rate than the urban elderly. Also, a higher number of impoverished rural families lived in married-couple households than in urban areas.
It appears that behavior is the key to distinguishing the urban underclass from the rural poor. In his provocative book The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (1990), Wilson maintains that “there is a heterogeneous grouping of inner-city families and individuals whose behavior contrasts sharply with that of mainstream America.” The anomie or normlessness displayed among the urban underclass manifests itself through high rates of out-of-wedlock births, unemployment or underemployment, low educational attainment, drug and alcohol abuse, and crime.
Economics and the Poor
From the end of World War II until the late 1960’s, the United States experienced an economic boom. There was little urban poverty, and rural poverty declined as a result of migration to cities. During this period of general prosperity, the eyes of the country turned to the less fortunate. When President Lyndon B. Johnson declared unconditional War on Poverty in 1964, the federal government established an official poverty line and assistance programs. Not all elements of the poor population were helped by federal programs; the focus was mainly on the Appalachia area and poor children and mothers. Sociological research on poverty increased in the 1960’s and flourished until the mid-1970’s.
Following national economic restructuring beginning in 1979, rural areas experienced economic growth; manufacturers built factories and brought new jobs to small towns. Prices for farm products increased, domestic energy industries expanded, and retirees began moving to rural areas. As Duncan notes, however, this “rural turnaround” was short-lived. Rural poverty began to rise again, mainly because the national economy was hit hard by high inflation, recessions, low wages, unemployment, and slow job growth—the results of international competition, factory closings, and layoffs.
The formation of the urban underclass from the 1960’s to the 1990’s is generally attributed to the mass exodus of white residents from cities to the suburbs, and to the simultaneous decline in semiskilled and unskilled employment opportunities in the inner cities. In the early 1980’s, many middle-class African Americans left the urban areas to take advantage of educational and employment opportunities in the suburbs.
With the absence of middle-class families and their incomes came a substantial decrease in the tax base available to support public schools and other government-run programs. The quality of education declined, and urban youths found opportunities slipping even further out of reach and thus became caught in the poverty trap. The departure of the middle class eventually eroded other stabilizing social institutions, including black churches and local businesses.
During President Ronald Reagan’s administration in the 1980’s, the situation worsened. Republican constituents were not, in general, poor or black, but rather middle- and working-class people who were tired of their tax dollars supporting the welfare state. This attitude led to the further neglect of the inner-city poor, which brought with it an increase in underclass violence, as seen in the 1992 Los Angeles riots. At the same time, the 1990s represented a time of declining poverty in rural areas.
The dot-com bubble caused a recession in 2001, which negatively affected even the rural poor. Later, the Great Recession of 2007–9 increased poverty generally, but especially elevated levels of poverty in rural and suburban areas, decreasing the statistical gap between the inner-city and rural poor populations.
Bibliography
Falk, Gene, and Karen Spar. Poverty: Major Themes in Past Debates and Current Proposals. Congressional Research Service, 18 Sept. 2014. PDF file.
"Poverty Demographics." Rural Poverty and Well-Being. US Dept. of Agriculture Economic Research Service, 27 Apr. 2015. Web. 15 May 2015.
"Strengthening the Rural Economy - The Current State of Rural America." Council of Economic Advisers. White House, n.d. Web. 15 May 2015.
Wilson, William Julius. The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1990. Print.
Wilson, William Julius. "Urban Poverty in America: The Truly Disadvantaged Revisited." Interview by Wilmot Allen. Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, 20 Jan. 2013. Web. 15 May 2015.