Wars of the Diadochi

At issue: Rule of the Hellenistic world

Date: 323-281 b.c.e.

Location: Greece, Macedonia, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, the Aegean islands

Combatants: Rival Macedonian armies

Principal commanders:Diadochi, Antigonus I (382-301 b.c.e.), Antipater (398?-319 b.c.e.), Cassander (350?-297 b.c.e.), Craterus (d. 321 b.c.e.), Demetrius I Poliorcetes (d. 283 b.c.e.), Eumenes (360?-316 b.c.e.), Lysimachus (361?-281 b.c.e.), Perdiccas (d. 321 b.c.e.), Ptolemy Soter (367/366-283/282 b.c.e.), Seleucus I Nicator (358/354-281 b.c.e.)

Principal battles: Salamis, Gaza, Rhodes, Ipsus, Corus

Result: Division of Alexander III’s empire

Background

Alexander the Great died without an adult heir in 323 b.c.e. His massive empire, stretching from the Balkans to India, quickly dissolved at the hands of rival generals, some attempting to create smaller empires, while others wanted it all. These men, former close associates of Alexander, were dubbed the Diadochi, Greek for “successors.”

Although highly skilled and often commanding a remnant of Alexander’s superb army, the Diadochi and the battles they fought were different from those of their former master. First, while most were competent and in a few cases imaginative, none had Alexander’s touch. Nor could they rely upon dedicated armies of loyal veterans. Instead, Diadochi led mercenary armies, forces quite capable of turning coat for a few extra drachma. Indeed, guile and treachery were often more valuable talents than tactical flair.

Another difference involved new types of troops and weapons. Here the Diadochi borrowed from eastern armies or, in a few cases, became innovators. War elephants, larger war galleys, and massive siege equipment were examples. Size being a common feature, these devices represent not only an effort to gain tactical advantage but also a chance to display the power and wealth of their commanders.

Action

The Diadochi fell out almost as soon as Alexander died. A series of maneuvers quickly eliminated Craterus, Perdiccas, and Antipater, and Eumenes died soon afterward. A truce, in 311 b.c.e., allowed the survivors to divide the empire while maintaining a fiction that all was being held in proxy for the underage Alexander IV. A year later, his assassination started another war. This was the work of a father-son team: Antigonus I and Demetrius I Poliorcetes. They combined guile, inventiveness, and a degree of charisma far greater than that of the other Diadochi. Their plans called for reunification of Alexander’s empire.

Working from a strong position, the pair dominated Asia Minor; Antigonus and Demetrius came close to success. The latter proved himself multitalented, a master of siege work, a competent general, and a great admiral. Using larger warships and innovative tactics, Demetrius scored a decisive victory over Ptolemy Soter’s brother, Menelaeus, at Salamis (308 b.c.e.), off the coast of Cyprus. Although defeated by Ptolemy in the land battle of Gaza (305 b.c.e.), he conquered Athens and many other Greek cities, thus earning his nickname, Poliorcetes, the taker of cities.

The apex of this war came during the Siege of Rhodes (305-304 b.c.e.), where, despite his employment of the Helepolis, the largest siege engine of its day, Demetrius failed to conquer. Three years later, their power having united all other Diadochi against them, Antigonus and Demetrius fought the climactic Battle of Ipsus (301 b.c.e.). One of their opponents, Seleucus I Nicator, employed a large number of war elephants. Unless accustomed to the smell, horses will often bolt in the presence of elephants. Seleucus cleverly interposed his elephants between the main body under Antigonus and Demetrius’s cavalry. This effectively split the opposition, allowing the other Diadochi to kill Antigonus. Demetrius escaped to rally what remained of their army. The victors now agreed to split Alexander’s empire into Macedonian, Syrian, and Egyptian components.

Demetrius maintained a small fleet and army, plus a presence in Asia Minor and the Aegean, but seemed removed from contention until Cassander, king of Macedonia, died in 297 b.c.e. Taking advantage of the interregnum, Demetrius moved in and captured the kingdom in 294 b.c.e. Fearing a revival of his power, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and King Pyrrhus of Epirus united to destroy Demetrius. The latter fled to Asia Minor, hoping to stir up his former comrades, but failed and was captured by Seleucus.

A final showdown now took place between Seleucus and Lysimachus. The later was cut down in hand-to-hand combat during the Battle of Corus (281 b.c.e.), and shortly thereafter, Seleucus, the last of the Diadochi, was assassinated.

Aftermath

The real turning point was the Battle of Ipsus, for only Antigonus had the strength and vision to re-create Alexander’s empire. His failure proved that none of the Diadochi could continue that course. Instead, a general division of the Hellenistic world ensued, creating three hostile power blocks: Macedonia, Syria, and Egypt.

The Deaths of the Diadochi (all dates b.c.e.)

Bibliography

Bar-Kochva, B. The Seleucid Army. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979.

Billows, Richard A. Antigonos the One-Eyed and the Creation of the Hellenistic State. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.

Lund, Helen S. Lysimachus: A Study in Early Hellenistic Kingship. New York: Routledge, 1992.

Warry, John. Warfare in the Classical World. London: Salamander, 1998.