Information Technology

Summary

Information technology is a discipline with ties to computer science, information systems, and software engineering. In general, information technology includes any expertise that helps create, modify, store, manage, or communicate information. It encompasses networking, systems management, program development, computer hardware, interface design, information assurance, systems integration, database management, and Web technologies. Information technology places a special emphasis on solving user issues, including helping everyone learn to use computers in a secure and socially responsible way.

Definition and Basic Principles

Information technology is a discipline that stresses systems management, the use of computer applications, and end-user services. Although information technology professionals need a good understanding of networking, program development, computer hardware, systems development, software engineering, website design, and database management, they do not need as complete an understanding of the theory of computer science as computer scientists do. Information technology professionals need a solid understanding of systems development and project management but do not need as extensive a background in this as information systems professionals. In contrast, information technology professionals need better interpersonal skills than computer science and information systems workers because they often work extensively with end users.

During the second half of the twentieth century, the world moved from the industrial age to the computer age, culminating in the development of the World Wide Web in 1990. The massive success of the Web as a means of communication marked a transition from the computer age, with an emphasis on technology, to the information age, emphasizing how technology enhances the use of information. The Web is used in many ways to improve the use and transfer of information, including telephone service, social networking, email, teleconferencing, and radio and television programs. Information technology contains tools that make it easier to create, organize, manage, exchange, and use information.

Background and History

The first computers were developed during World War II as an extension of programmable calculating machines. John von Neumann added the stored program concept in 1944, and this set off the explosive growth in computer hardware and software during the remainder of the twentieth century. As computing power increased, those using the computers began to think less about the underlying technology and more about what the computers allowed them to do with data. In this way, information, the organization of data in a way that facilitates decision-making, became what was important, not the technology that was used to obtain the data. By 1984, organizations such as the Data Processing Management Association introduced a model curriculum defining the training required to produce professionals in information systems management, and information systems professionals began to manage the information of government and business.

In 1990, computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee developed a Web browser, and the Web soon became the pervasive method of sharing information. In addition to businesses and governmental agencies, individuals became extensive users and organizers of information, using applications such as Google and Facebook. In the early 2000s, it became clear that a new computer professional specializing in information management was needed to complement the existing information systems professionals. By 2008, the Association of Computing Machinery and the IEEE Computer Society released their recommendations for educating information technology professionals, authenticating the existence of this new computing field. Information technology has become one of the most active areas in computer science.

How It Works

The principal activity of information technology is the creation, storage, manipulation, and communication of information. To accomplish these activities, information technology professionals must have a background in several fields and be able to use various techniques.

Networking and Web Systems. Information is stored and processed on computers. In addition, information is shared by computers over networks. Information technology professionals need to have a good working knowledge of computer and network systems to assist them in acquiring, maintaining, and managing these systems. Of the many tasks performed by information technology professionals, none is more important than installing, updating, and training others to use applications software. The Web manages information by storing it on a server and distributing it to individuals using a browser, such as Internet Explorer, Firefox, or Google Chrome. Building websites and applications is a major part of information technology that has increased tremendously as more mobile devices access information provided by Web services.

Component Integration and Programming. Writing programs in a traditional language such as Java continues to be an important task for information technology professionals, as it had been for other computer professionals in the past. However, building new applications from components using several Web services has rapidly overtaken traditional programming. For all types of custom applications, the creation of a user-friendly interface is important. This includes the careful design of the screen elements so that applications are easy to use and have well-thought-out input techniques, such as allowing digital camera and scanner input at the appropriate place in a program, as well as making sure the application is accessible to visually and hearing impaired people.

Databases. Data storage is an essential component of information technology. In the early days of computers, most information was stored in files. The difficulty of updating information derived from a file led to the first database systems, such as the information management system created by IBM in the 1960s. In the 1970s, relational databases became the dominant method of storing data, although several competing technologies are also in use. For example, many corporate data are stored in large spreadsheets, many personal data are kept in word-processing documents, and many Web data are stored directly on Web pages.

Information Security, Privacy, and Assurance. Regardless of how information is collected, stored, processed, or transferred, it needs to be secure. Information security techniques include developing security plans and policies, encrypting sensitive data during storage and transit, having good incident response and recovery teams, installing adequate security controls, and providing security training for all levels of an organization. In addition to making sure that an organization's data are secure, it is also important to operate the data management functions of an organization in such a way that each individual's personal data are released only to authorized parties. Increasingly, organizations want information handled in such a way that the organization can be assured that the data are accurate and have not been compromised.

Professionalism. Information technology professionals need to inform themselves of the ethical principles of their field (such as the Association of Computing Machinery's code of ethical and professional conduct) and conscientiously follow this code. Increasingly, laws are being passed about how to handle information, and information technology professionals need to be aware of these laws and to follow them.

Applications and Products

There are more useful applications of information technology than can be enumerated, but they all involve making information accessible and usable.

End-User Support. One of the most important aspects of information technology is its emphasis on providing support for a wide variety of computer users. In industrial, business, and educational environments, user support often starts immediately after someone is given access to a computer. An information technology professional assists the user with the login procedure and shows him or her how to use email and various applications. After this initial introduction, technology professionals at a help desk answer the user's questions. Some companies also provide training courses. When hardware and software problems develop, users contact the information technology professionals in the computer support department for assistance in correcting their problems.

Information technology educational programs usually cover the theory and practice of end-user support in their general courses, and some offer courses dedicated to end-user support. This attention to end-user support is quite different from most programs in computer science, information systems, or software engineering and is one of the most important differences between information technology programs and other areas of computer science.

The Electronic Medical Record. Information technology is significant in improving hospitals' operations by providing medical services, maintaining flexible schedules, ensuring more accurate billing, and reducing the overall cost of operation. In much the same way, information technology helps doctors in clinics and individual practices improve the quality of their care, scheduling, billing, and operations. One of the early successes of using computers in medicine was the implementation of e-prescribing. Doctors can easily use the Internet to determine the availability of a drug needed by a patient, electronically send the prescription to the correct pharmacy, and bill the patient or their insurance company for the prescription. Another success story for medical information technology is in digital imaging. Most medical images are created digitally, and virtually all images are stored in a digital format. The Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM) standard for storing and exchanging digital images makes it possible for medical images to be routinely exchanged between different medical facilities. Although filling prescriptions and storing images is largely automated, the rest of medicine is still in the process of becoming fully automated. However, computers are likely to become as much a part of medical facilities as they are of financial institutions.

One of the major goals of information technology is the development of a true electronic medical record (EMR), or electronic health record (EHR), so that all the medical information created for an individual by such activities as filling out forms, taking tests, and receiving care is stored digitally. This electronic medical record is given to individuals in its entirety and to hospitals and insurance companies as needed. Electronic medical records are available to the government for data mining to determine health policies. Many professionals in information technology are involved in the collection, storage, and security of electronic medical records.

Geographic Information Management. Maps have been used by governments since the beginning of recorded history to help with the process of governing. Geographic information systems (GIS) are computerized systems for storing, retrieving, manipulating, analyzing, and displaying geographic data and maps. In the 1950s, the first GIS were used by government agencies to assist in activities such as planning, zoning, real estate sales, and highway construction. They were developed on mainframes and accessed by government employees for those desiring the information in the systems. The early GIS required substantial computing resources because they used many binary maps but were relatively simple as information retrieval systems.

Geographic information systems still serve the government, but they are also used by industry and educational institutions and have gained many applications, including the study of disease, flood control, census estimates, and oil discovery. GIS information is easily accessed over the Internet. For example, zoning information about Dallas, Texas, is readily available from the city's website. Many general portals also provide GIS information to the public. For example, Google Maps allows travelers to map their routes on their portable devices and provides a curbside view of the destination. Modern geographic information systems are complex, layered software systems that require expertise to create and maintain.

Network Management. Computer networking developed almost as quickly as the computing field itself. With the rapid acceptance of the Internet in the 1990s, computer connectivity through networking became as common as the telephone system. As computer networks developed, a need also developed for professionals to manage these networks. The first network managers were generally hardware specialists who were good at running cable through a building, adding hardware to a computer, and configuring network software so that it would work. Modern network specialists need all these early capabilities but also must be network designers, managers, and security experts.

Database Management. One of the major functions of information technology is the storage of information. Information consists of data organized for meaningful usage. Both data and information regarding how the data are related can be stored in many ways. For example, many corporate data are stored in word-processing documents, spreadsheets, and emails. Even more corporate data are stored in relational databases such as Oracle. Most businesses, educational institutions, and government agencies have database management specialists who spend most of their time determining the best logical and physical models for the storage of data.

Mobile Computing and the Cloud.Mobile phones and tablets have become so powerful that they rival computers, and Web services and applications for computers or mobile devices are developed at a breathtaking rate. These two technological developments work together to provide many Web applications for smartphones. Smartphones are capable of sharing all manner of data.

Cloud computing and storage have changed how people use computers in their homes. Rather than purchasing computers and software, some home users pay for computing as a service and store their data in an online repository. Numerous companies like Google, Apple, and Amazon offer cloud storage. Furthermore, many businesses relied on cloud computing to remain operational during the global COVID-19 pandemic as employees worked remotely. For many employees, remote work has become the norm. Upgrading equipment, following security protocols, and training employees on newly implemented or upgraded equipment or software were critical.

Computer Integrated Manufacturing. Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) provides complete support for the business analysis, engineering, manufacturing, and marketing of a manufactured item, such as a car. CIM has many key areas, including computer-aided design (CAD), supply chain management, inventory control, and robotics.

Many of the areas of CIM require considerable use of information technology. For example, CAD programs require a good data management program to keep track of the design changes, complex algorithms to display the complicated graphical images, fast computer hardware to display the images quickly, and good project management tools to assist in completing the project on time. Robots, intelligent machines used to build products, require much innovative computer and machine hardware, very complex artificial intelligence algorithms simulating human operation of machine tools, and sophisticated computer networks for connecting the robotic components on the factory floor.

Computer Security Management. One of the most active areas of information technology is computer security management. As theoretical computer scientists develop new techniques to protect computers, such as new encryption algorithms, information technology specialists work on better ways to implement these techniques to protect computers and computer networks. Learning how to acquire the proper hardware and software, do a complete risk analysis, write a good security policy, test a computer network for vulnerabilities, and accredit a business's securing of its computers requires all the talents of an information technologist.

Website Development. The World Wide Web was introduced in 1990, and since that time, it has become the most important information distribution technology available. Information technology professionals are the backbone of most website development teams, providing support for setting up and maintaining Web servers, developing the HTML pages and graphics that provide the Web content, and assisting others in a company in getting their content on the Web.

Careers and Course Work

A common way to prepare for a career in information technology is to obtain a degree in information systems. Students begin with courses in mathematics and business and then take about thirty hours of courses on information systems development. A computer science or software engineering degree is another way to prepare for an information technology career. The courses in ethics, mathematics, programming, and software management that are part of these majors provide background for becoming an information technology professional. 

Many schools offer degree programs in information technology with concentrations in various areas. Students begin with problem-solving, ethics, communications, and management courses and then take about thirty-six hours of courses in programming, network administration, databases, and network design. Depending on the student’s chosen concentration, they may engage in more network administration, cybersecurity, business technology, or software development courses.

In addition to obtaining a degree, many information technology professionals attend one of the many professional training and certification programs. Certification programs, like those from CompTIA, Microsoft, and Cisco, are highly valued in the twenty-first century. One of the original certification programs was the Novell Certified Engineer, followed almost immediately by several Microsoft certification programs. These programs produced many information technology professionals for network management. Cisco has created a very successful certification program for preparing network specialists in internetworking (connecting individual local-area networks to create wide-area networks).

Those getting an information technology degree often take positions in network management, end-user support, database management, or data modeling. A possible position would be a regional real estate brokerage network manager. Those getting degrees in information systems often take information technology jobs as systems analysts, data modelers, or system managers, performing tasks such as helping implement a new database management system for a local bank. Others take information technology jobs as programmers or system managers, charged with tasks such as helping write a new program to calculate the ratings of a stock fund.

Social Context and Future Prospects

The future of information technology is bright, with good jobs available in end-user support, network management, programming, and database management. These areas and the other traditional areas of information technology will likely remain important. Network management and end-user support appear poised for tremendous growth, especially as many people continue to work remotely. The increase in the use of the Internet and mobile devices requires the support of robust networks, which will require a large number of information technology professionals to install, repair, update, and manage networks. The ever-increasing use of the Internet and mobile devices also means that many new, less technically aware people will try to use the Web and need the help provided by information technology end-user specialists.

A large number of new applications for information technology are being developed. One of the areas of development is in medical informatics. This includes the fine-tuning of existing hospital software systems, the development of better clinical systems, and the integration of all of these systems. The United States and many other nations are committed to developing a portable electronic health record for each person. Creating these electronic health records is a massive information technology project requiring a large workforce of highly specialized professionals. For example, to classify all of the world's medical information, a new language, Health Level 7 (HL7), has been created, and thousands of specialists have been encoding medical information into this language.

Using mobile devices to access computing from Web services is another vital area of information technology development. Web-based software and storage, or cloud computing, is increasingly becoming the dominant form of computing, which means more jobs for information technology professionals.

Another critical area of information technology is managing information ethically, legally, and securely while ensuring the privacy of its owners. Security management specialists must work with network and database managers to ensure that organizations handle the data being processed, transferred, and stored appropriately. Maintaining systems' ethics and other logistics becomes increasingly important as technology becomes increasingly ubiquitous.

Bibliography

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