Syriac literature

Syriac literature is the literature of the Syriac language, which is a branch of Aramaic that originated in Urfa in what is now modern Turkey. The language, which is still spoken in parts of the Middle East, is most commonly identified with Syriac Christianity. Syriac literature is also linked to Christianity as nearly all the Syriac literature—particularly that from the golden age of Syriac literature from the fourth to the seventh centuries CE—is Christian-themed. People study Syriac literature to learn about early Christianity, as these writings help show the evolution of the early Christian Church. People also study the literature because the Syriac language is closely related to other languages, such as Hebrew, that originated in the Middle East.

Background

The Syriac language originated as a branch of the Aramaic language, which was itself a part of the larger Semitic language family, making it related to other Semitic languages such as Arabic and Hebrew. Syriac is the best-known Aramaic dialect, and it most likely originated around the ancient city of Edessa, which is today Urfa, Turkey. Edessa became a center of early Syriac literature. The language most likely developed from other languages spoken in parts of the Middle East, such as areas in what is now Syria and Iraq.

The Syriac language developed an alphabet in the first century and was related to Aramaic script. The Syriac language had an alphabet made of twenty-two letters, all of which were consonants. The language was generally written right to left, like other Semitic languages, but it was also sometimes written vertically downward. In the eighth century, the language developed written vowels, which were formed with diacritical marks.

The first Syriac script was found in tombs that date from the first to third centuries CE. These tombs were not Christian, indicating the script may have developed before it was used to create Christian writings. The earliest Syriac writings were most likely lost; therefore, it is unclear whether the earliest texts in the language were Christian. However, by the third and fourth centuries, Syriac writing was primarily in service of Christianity.

A schism in the fifth century in the Christian Church at the Council of Ephesus (431) caused different Syrian scripts to develop in the Syriac language. The two types, western and eastern, were used until the eighth and fourteenth centuries, respectively.

The Syriac language continued to travel and be adopted by more people. It spread over a large part of Mesopotamia and parts of Syria. It also traveled along trade routes, such as the Silk Road, and was adopted in more places. The language was adopted as far east as India and parts of central Asia. It spread as far west as Ethiopia. A stone from the eighth century in modern Xi’an, China, shows the spread of the Syriac language, as it includes Syriac and Chinese text. The Syriac language also became a major language used in the Chaldean and Persian empires.

In the seventh century, Arabs began what became known as the Arab conquest, as they overtook parts of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. This conquest greatly influenced the development of the Syriac language, making it less influential than it had been in the past. It also greatly influenced Syriac literature at the time.

The Syriac language is still spoken in parts of the Middle East, but it is known primarily as being the language of Syriac Christianity. It is an important language for biblical scholars, as numerous early Christian texts are written in the language.

Overview

Syriac literature makes up an important body of literature from the ancient Mediterranean and Middle East. Scholars estimate that about 20,000 Syriac texts existed into the modern era, with these texts being almost exclusively Christian.

Although the Syriac language is most commonly associated with ancient texts, ethnic Syriac communities continue to use the language today. In part because the language has such a long history, some scholars disagree about how scholars should classify Syriac literature. Some scholars believe the ancient and modern Syriac literature should be viewed as totally different disciplines. However, other scholars include all Syriac literature and merely focus on different historical periods that make up one discipline.

The first period in the history of Syriac literature, roughly the 300s to the 700s CE, is often called the golden age of Syriac literature and is when many of the works included in traditional Syriac literature were composed. This is also the time when the Syriac language was at its most dominant.

During the second and third centuries, Christianity began to spread around what is now the Middle East. Most writing from this period is by Christians about their religion. One of the earliest pieces of Syriac writing that still exists is a copy of the New Testament—the part of the Bible about Jesus and his followers—that was written in the 300s or 400s. Although some Greek and Roman Bibles predate this Syrian text, this New Testament copy is one of the earliest versions of the New Testament to include the four gospels (stories of Jesus’s life) that would later be accepted as the canonical gospels. It helps show the evolution of the Christian Bible in the early centuries of Christianity.

Like the Syriac version of the New Testament, sometimes called the Syriac Sinaiticus, some of the earliest existing Syriac literature includes works that were translated from Greek. These works are often very faithful to the Greek originals and do not add or change the text. Because of this, some early works of Syriac literature have been important for preserving certain Greek works, which would have otherwise been lost.

Christians in the Sasanian Empire in the 300s experienced severe persecution under Shapur II (c. 309–379). This persecution led to many killings of Christians, and their martyrdom stories became popular forms of Syriac writing from this period. For example, one work written at the time was called The Martyrdom of the Lady Tarbo, Her Sister, and Her Servant. The book tells about the deaths of the women, who were eviscerated, in detail. Although the historical accuracy of such martyrdom stories cannot be known, the stories were an important literary tradition in the Syriac language in the early Christian Church.

Another of the earliest known Syriac-language texts is the Odes of Solomon, which includes forty-two short lyric poems. The author and exact date of the Syriac versions of the text are unknown, but some of the poems were also written in Greek and Coptic. The poems are said to have been first written by King Solomon centuries earlier. Some scholars believe these writings may date from as early as the first or second centuries.

Scholars have identified numerous authors from the golden age of Syriac literature. Aphrahat was a Syriac Christian author who lived in the early fourth century. He is often called “The Persian Sage” and is known for writing more than twenty meditations on the Christian faith. Although his birth and death dates are unclear, some scholars believe he produced his last writing in 345 CE.

Saint Ephrem, also called Ephrem the Syrian, is possibly the most famous Syriac author. Saint Ephrem is considered a doctor of the Church, meaning he is seen as an authoritative source of Christian theology by the Catholic Church. Ephrem was a deacon, but he refused to be ordained as a priest. He was a poet who wrote lyrical descriptions of his faith and theology. He also wrote hymns against heretics. Because he wrote so many poems and hymns, Ephrem is sometimes called the Harp of the Holy Spirit. Ephrem is probably the most influential writer in this Syriac Christianity and influenced the Christian Church as a whole.

By the seventh century, the Arab conquests of the Middle East decreased the size of Christian populations and Syriac-speaking populations. This brought about the next period of Syriac literary history, which lasted from the 600s to the 1300s. Few important works of Syriac literature exist from this period, but some are notable. Thomas of Marga was a Syriac Christian who lived in what is now Iraq. Thomas was best known for writing a book of monastic histories. Thomas became a bishop in the 840s, and his writing has helped preserve important details about the Christian faith in what is now the Middle East in the ninth century.

The final period of Syriac literature lasted from about 1300 to the present. Like the previous period, the most recent period of Syriac literature has fewer important works than the golden age. However, the 1800s and 1900s saw a revival in interest in the Syriac language and Syriac literature. This happened in part as Christian theologians wanted to study more of the early Christian works to better understand the early Christian Church. However, the revival in interest in the Syriac language also dealt with secular works.

The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries witnessed a revival of Syriac literature, both secular and religious. This included an increased interest in the study of Syriac heritage by Western scholars. Universities like Oxford and Birmingham offered degrees in Syriac. Many international conferences on Syriac studies are conducted in different parts of the world. A few dozen periodicals are also published in Syriac and Neo-Aramaic. One important piece of scholarship on the Syriac language, The Scattered Pearls: The History of Syriac Literature and Sciences, was published in 1943. It was written by Ignatius Aphram I. Barsoum, Syrian Patriarch of Antioch and All the East. Several other anthologies and collections of modern Syriac literature have arisen with the renewed interest and scholarly appeal of the Syriac language.

Bibliography

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Butts, Aaron Michael and Robin Darling Young (Eds.) Syriac Christian Culture: Beginnings to Renaissance. Catholic University of America Press: 2021.

Gouryh, Admer. “The Scattered Pearls: The History of Syriac Literature and Sciences - By Ignatius Aphram I. Barsoum, Matti Mossa.” Muslim World, vol. 97, no. 2, Apr. 2007, pp. 358–60. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=khh&AN=32100239&site=ehost-live. Accessed 7 Nov. 2024.

Ryan, Antonia. “It’s Time for Beautiful ‘Feminine Blooms’: The Wisdom of the Syriac Fathers Inspires Feminine Images of God.” National Catholic Reporter, vol. 42, no. 22, 31 Mar. 2006, p. 10.

Schmidt, Thomas. The Book of Revelation and its Eastern Commentators. Cambridge University Press, 2021.

“Solomon, Odes of.” Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage, gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Solomon-Odes-of. Accessed 7 Nov. 2024.

“Syriac Language.” Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage, https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Solomon-Odes-of. Accessed 30 Nov. 2022.

Winter, Michael M. “Interlopers Reunited: The Early Translators of Ben Sira.” Journal of Biblical Literature, vol. 131, no. 2, 2012, pp. 251–69. EBSCOhost, https://doi.org/10.2307/23488224.